Probable cause is incredibly ambiguous. Having been stopped and searched myself several times, both in my car and on foot, it’s not a pleasant feeling. As the author noted, there are sufficient indicators or interpretations of laws for a police officer to stop you for pretty much anything. You can be pulled over simply for driving too well, as if obeying the law to the T is in and of itself suspicious. It used to be that military or “I support my local law enforcement” type bumper stickers were safe havens, distinguishing you from the profiling net. However police trainers have started targeting cars with these types of identifiers, purporting that drug dealers use them as a ruse. Although you can refuse your car to be searched, when they actually bring the dog, they can easily cause the dog to make a false alert. Trainers and dogs are spending hour’s together rehearsing scenarios, and if they want to get in your car believe me they will signal to the dog to bark (I know someone who trains canine units). I also personally know someone who had over $80,000 worth of contraband confiscated. No arrest or paperwork were filed, the officer simply stole the merchandise and drove off.

Alexander raises the issue of the perverse incentive police departments have regarding arrests. Although commissioner Kelly has routinely reminded us that there are no “quotas” that his department must fill, for local law enforcement agencies incentives for funding a bigger.