Chapter Ten of Reitano’s The Restless City focuses on the changes in New York City after the 1965 immigration reform. By the 1990s, New York was more diverse and populous than it had ever been. Asian, Latino, and West Indian immigrants had established a presence in local neighborhoods, and were able to assimilate into society while still holding onto their cultural identity and pride. With such diversity, the cosmopolitan identity emerged – an open-minded, multicultural identity created when people of various backgrounds interact and create friendships with one another.
The Asian community in NYC saw significant changes in the years following 1965. Before immigration reform, Asians were mainly segregated in Chinatown and were barred from citizenship and job opportunities. After the repeal of the exclusion policy in 1943, Chinese immigrants were finally able to rejoin their family in America, and many found work in the garment industry. Most of these laborers were part of the Cantonese working class community, and clashed with the Mandarin-speaking immigrants from Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Taiwan. Such internal tensions within the Asian community were exacerbated by the model minority myth, which was the idea that through rigorous education, the children of immigrants could have the opportunities their parents could not. Despite these problems, the Asian community was able to grow in terms of geography and representation – there were now thriving communities in Sunset Park, Brooklyn, and Flushing, Queens, and Asians gained a voice in politics through the election of John C. Liu as City Comptroller.
Latino immigrants also established communities in New York City during the later half of the 20th century. Puerto Ricans and Dominicans were the largest Latino immigrant groups, and both were able to assimilate, though not without struggles. Puerto Ricans had a unique situation that complicated their sense of cultural identity. They gained American citizenship in 1917, which caused inner conflict amongst many who felt that they were “traveling back and forth” between identities as an American and as a Puerto Rican. In New York, Puerto Ricans were mainly middle class, although some lived in poverty and had low education levels. Despite these societal struggles, Puerto Ricans maintained their ethnic pride, with the Puerto Rican Day Parade, and were able to gain representation in politics.
Dominicans were another large Latino immigrant presence in New York – and by 2000, they had outnumbered Puerto Ricans. Like the Puerto Ricans, Dominicans had a dual identity but remained politically active in both their home country and America. Dominican women had a mixed experience adjusting to New York life – while they were able to find jobs as factory workers in the apparel industry and support themselves, they were paid low wages and were often taken advantage of by employers. Unlike Dominican men who wanted to return to the Dominican Republic eventually, women wanted to stay in New York and make money. A large Dominican community was established in Corona, Queens, retaining a sense of cultural identity and creating a home away from home.
The 20th century also saw a wave of West Indian migration to New York, specifically in the 1920s. West Indians joined the Harlem community at the height of the Harlem Renaissance, but instead of fully assimilating with their African-American neighbors, some used their British ties to set themselves apart. This tension lasted until the 1960s, when the civil rights cause united their issues. Aside from Harlem, NY, there is a large West Indian community in Flatbush, Brooklyn, and the West Indian American Day Carnival is an event that promotes pan-ethnicity and is open to all.
During these waves of Asian, Latino, and West Indian immigration, New York saw a shift in politics through the election of Mayor Rudy Giuliani. Giuliani was a Republican with very conservative values, especially in an extremely Democratic place like New York City. Giuliani mainly focused on the middle class and disliked “handouts” that helped the poor. While many people found his strict approach towards the poor unfair, other New Yorkers appreciated his hard policies. Giuliani cut funding for welfare and Medicaid, and enforced the Work Experience Program that required all able-bodied adult qualifying recipients to work for their welfare. Such drastic changes earn Giuliani the comparison to past mayor that also got things done: Fiorello H. LaGuardia. LaGuardia, however, focused on improving life the poor, just as Giuliani mainly worked for the benefit of the rich and middle class. In all, Giuliani is remembered as a good mayor for his handling of 9/11, an event that tested the city but ultimately proved its resilience.
