Any activism is only as powerful as the place where it occurs. At each place the audience, ambiance, and overall message of an activist activity will be slightly different. ACT UP is an advocacy group to peacefully fight for people who suffer from AIDS. They feel as though this epidemic has not received enough attention  so they believe that it is their responsibility to help the LGBT community to educate others and help find a cure. Since millions of people were dying from the AIDS crisis, ACT UP made sure to have their voices heard and shed light on topics that were overlooked, especially throughout the 1980’s.

One of the ways that ACT UP was able to succeed with their mission was through their slightly controversial use of sacred spaces across the country. I think that sacred spaces are anywhere that people feel a connection to or that they see as a respectable institution. Throughout their existence, ACT UP has used sacred spaces to hold their activist movements. Some instances include walking into a NYC hospital to question the doctors and how hard they were trying, throwing ashes of people who passed away due to AIDS/HIV straight onto the White House lawn, as well as walking into St. Patricks Cathedral while a service was going on. The purpose of using these specific locations was to make a valid point and directly question the institutions that were not doing enough to help or even institutions that were speaking against the cause. Although coming to sacred spaces and making a statement was not usual, it was imperative for the ACT UP cause to get more attention.

ACT UP decided to incorporate sacred spaces into its actions to directly have an impact. They knew that by using spaces which people had an emotional connection to would definitely evoke a response and it would result in the exposure and attention that they desperately needed and wanted. It’s important to keep in mind that this exposure meant that there were positive as well as negative reactions. While these actions did raise awareness, some people simply couldn’t understand how the activists could dare to “invade” sacred space. Overall, ACT UP was able to succeed in their goal of creating more awareness although they may have taken the unconventional route.

The organization helped make the “unconventional route” more normal and also reinforced the idea of having your voice heard regardless of the immediate change among many people. These lessons can be applied to the Uber vs Taxicab issue that exists today in NYC and may even empower the taxicab drivers to have the issues that they face to be more well known. I think that the most effective way for the Uber vs Taxicab issue to see some reform is by using their strength in numbers, similar to how the people that were a part of ACT UP did. In addition, since it is known that Uber drivers aren’t the enemy, the company of Uber itself is, they should make sure to fight the root of the problem instead of causing more tensions between the drivers themselves. In this issue, informing the public is very critical and this was also seen done by ACT UP in numerous instances. By learning from the lessons of the past, the Uber and Taxi issue can see significant progress in its change and reform.

-R.Rasheed

The Great Depression as well as World War II were extremely impactful historical events that changed the lives of many across the country, and their effects could be seen for decades to come. These impacts and effects can be seen in “A Time of Trial” by Fredrick Binder and David Reimers. Although it may seem obvious, it is also important to note that the effect these events had on different racial and ethnic groups varied greatly.

Up until the Great Depression hit, immigration had always been a key part to New York culture. However, this came to a slow halt as people didn’t think that America could offer the same golden opportunities that it had before. The Great Depression affected the entire population in various ways. It left millions of people without any sources of income and they were relying on multiple forms of relief to get by. People stood in lines for hours outside of soup kitchens for food and they went to charitable organizations, such as the Municipal Lodging House, for shelter.  The dependency on these resources increased greatly since, “About one fourth of New Yorkers were unemployed by 1933”(Binder, Reimers 178). Other examples of welfare and aid organizations were the Charity Organization Society, the Children’s Aid Society, and the Urban League. People also used traditional forms of aid such as religious agencies and charities (mainly Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Jewish).

In addition,  the gravity of the problems that New Yorkers were facing cannot even be correctly analyzed as many people were not using the government aid resources that were available. Only 1.2% of the Chinese population was using aid and instead used tactics such as job sharing and aid from loan associations. This was due to a sense of pride and they felt that if they accepted help then they had failed. Although all of these organizations were doing there best to help out and expand their efforts, many of them could not keep up with the high demand. Similar sentiments were felt by New York’s government, and as pressures rose, it was uncovered that public officials were usurping thousands of dollars under Mayor Jimmy Walker. Shortly after these transactions were exposed, Jimmy Walker resigned and was replaced by Fiorella La Guardia. Some of the biggest changes that came from his election were an increased number of black voters, reduced corruption throughout the government, as well as the creation of an airport in New York, called LaGuardia airport.

Overall, white collared workers were able to do better than blue collared workers. After seeing this trend, people started investing in their children’s education and “the number of students attending high school increased by 45%” (180). The majority of these students were Jewish followed by Italians and others. However, the new trend for more education did not change the norm of men being more likely to attend college and further their education than women. Once women did further their education, they were less likely to become doctors or lawyers due to quotas so many became teachers. Getting married later, having less children, and moving in with your parents after marriage, had also become more accepted as people did not have the means to be able to provide for themselves independently. In addition, people were being more disconnected from their “roots” as there was a decline of foreign language movies and newspapers. Another effect of the Great Depression was that unions which were created earlier in the 20th century became significantly weaker.  

Among the people who were affected by the Great Depression, unsurprisingly, blacks had received the shortest end of the stick. In the worst times of the depression, “more than 40 percent of blacks were out of work, nearly twice the proportion of whites.” (179). Numerous businesses in New York refused to hire black workers, and if some did it was usually only because the diversity would benefit them in some way. The African-Americans found a way to combat this issue by boycotting stores that would not hire black clerks. This was able to start some momentum towards the hiring of black people in all business.

As tensions of World War II increased around the world, consequences were seen in New York as many of the homelands of the ethnic groups that made up NY’s population were involved. The Italian and Jewish communities relationships were not greatly fazed by what was happening in their homelands, however there was extreme tension between the Italians and African Americans over the invasion of Ethiopia by Italy. These tensions escalated to fights on the streets. While the war harmed many people, all racial and ethnic groups in NY benefitted as the economy was growing from the war. The wartime also provided jobs for many people in the US, jobs that were desperately needed. In addition, since there was a need for more employees, blacks were now being given the opportunities at jobs. This did not mean that they were treated very well since they still had low income and really poor housing conditions.  Eventually, changes were made that lead to the enactment of a fair housing law for all races. Although there was much discrimination that occurred due to the war, a majority of the ethnic groups stood by the United States and its goals for the war. These groups also made sure to have their positions were broadcasted through public actions as well as printing their thoughts in local newspapers.

While “A Time of Trial” focused on the effect of the war on immigrants in New York, the chapter, “Resistance or Loyalty: The Visual Politics of Mine Okubo,” by Nicholas Lampert focused on what it was like to be a Japanese American during this time, specifically in the West coast. Mine Okubo was forced to leave her entire life behind and live in an internment camp along with 110,000 other Japanese Americans, once President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066. Okubo wrote about her experiences in her book Citizen 13660, which was accompanied by her sketches that depicted what she saw on a daily basis. Her book was published in 1946, and this broadened her audience greatly. In addition, this book was able to act as a primary source for the events that were occurring inside the internment camps, directly contradicting the narrative the government was trying to tell. Her piece very simply just said what was happening; there were no thoughts or opinions associated with her writing. I think that this is what made her book as popular as it became since people were able to feel what they wanted to for themselves and they didn’t have to think from somebody’s perspective.

Through both of these texts, it is evident that ethnic and racial groups across the nation were deeply affected by the Great Depression and World War II. Regardless of specific groups or what part of the country, both of these events changed the course of the people of this nation (and city) forever.

-RR

We, as a society, have become greatly accustomed to the idea of anyone working  40 hours a week from 9AM-5PM, on Mondays through Fridays. We are so used to this concept that the struggles which were faced in order to reach this norm are regularly overlooked and forgotten. Just a little over one hundred years ago, the people of the labor force in New York, specifically in the garment industry, were working 56-58 hours per week while being compensated with a little over three dollars for their labor. At the time, New York City was the largest industrial city in the country and garment production was its largest manufacturing business. Due to this, thousands of people, mostly immigrants, were affected by the crazy hours and subpar pay that they were receiving and these issues are highlighted in Chapter 8 of Activist New York by Steven Jaffe as well as “Immigrant Women and Work” by Nancy Foner.

In order to understand how and why this situation was reached, it’s important to understand the people that were working and facing these circumstances and how they got to America. In a clearly organized and informative piece, Nancy Foner is able to describe the lives of immigrant, specifically Italian and Jewish, mothers and daughters in “Immigrant Women and Work”. At first the immigrants were mostly men and as they became more established and had enough money, they brought over working-aged kids followed by the mothers/wives and young children. Many Jewish girls worked in the garment factories (Foner 111). They mainly worked outside of the house to support their families to ensure for food and a roof over their heads. Almost all of the girls income went straight into covering house expenses, while boys were given some financial independence with how they spent their money. Additionally, it was normal for boys to receive higher educations that were funded by the salaries of their sisters.

In 1910 regulations were put into place to limit the amount of hours that people had to work, however most of the girls took on over time because they were afraid of getting fired if they didn’t work extra shifts. These extra hours also helped cover expenses for their homes. In addition to barely receiving wages, these girls were fined for any mistakes they made while on the job and they also had to pay for chairs and lockers. Along with unfair pay and long hours, the working conditions of the companies were dire and unsafe. Although life was bleak filled with working at factories as well as home, there were some benefits for working girls. They were able to socialize and make friends which enable them to express their thoughts in a new environment. They were exposed to many more ideas and different people compared to what was found in the four walls of their homes. Also the freedom to work outside of the house gave many girls the freedom and liberation to choose their spouses.

Compared to immigrant daughters, the lives of immigrant mothers were vastly different. Most didn’t work and stayed at home doing domestic work. For Jewish women, this was a distinct lifestyle compared to the lives that they lead back home as many eastern- European Jewish women were involved in business and acted as the breadwinner of the family. In the US, married women making money was seen as a result of financial trouble within the family, and not as a respectable choice. During the early years of immigration, women that wanted to work would do so from home by making things or help run their shops. As an additional source of income, Jewish families would house boarders so the women would cook and clean for them which could count as working. Immigrant, married, Italian women also faced a similar reality to the Jewish mothers. However, it was more common for an Italian women to go outside and work in a factory to help support the family because their husbands would generally earn less money than the Jewish men.  The reason behind the difference why it was less acceptable for a women to work in NY is because the housework here was more taxing and difficult. Back home, people would have their own parents to help and raise their kids however this was a big thing that was missing in American life. In addition, “housework was generally more demanding in America” (Foner 119). The use of sheets and fabric was a new concept and they needed to be washed and aired on a weekly basis.

Similar to their daughters, immigrant mothers would often socialize with friends. They would also hold the power to purchase what was needed for the house from the income of their children and husband. On the other hand, due to the the fact that they were mostly always at home, Jewish and Italian mothers rarely learned English or other American customs. Although they socialized with friends in the area, they felt a lack of community in America, compared to back home.

Most of the workforce in the garment industry consisted of the immigrant daughters. In order to try and combat the horrible working conditions, unions were formed that gave the group of workers (who had no authority) power in numbers; a practice that employers were against. Through the use of strikes, boycotting, as well as picketing, women across New York were able to demand change. One of the people who first insisted for a strike was Clara Lemlich, a garment worker who was forced to work unbelievable hours in dangerous condition with barely any pay along with 20,000 other people. These practices were not welcomed with open arms and in fact,  “Employers hired prostitutes and male criminals to provoke and rough up picketers” (Jaffe 126). Employers believed that they were the only ones who had the rights to determine the wages for their employees. Surprisingly, the employers themselves did not make much more money than the immigrants that they were hiring. Due to this, there was an increase in competition for profit for themselves which meant more pressure on the workers.

One of the most unexpected results of these acts of defiance were how women of all classes joined alongside the workers. This went to show how this wasn’t just a call for better working conditions, rather a call for better treatment of women in the workplace all together. The union members were tactful and were able to get much needed publicity from the press using techniques from the women’s suffrage movement. The first win from all of this occurred in Feb. 1910 where the workers, “won higher wages and shorter hours in 320 hops, most of which recognized the union” (Jaffe 127). In addition, over the next four years the unions grew from 30,000 to 250,000. These actions also inspired male dominated unions which lead to the “Protocol of Peace”, a compromise introduced by Louis Brandeis, a Boston lawyer. The goal of this collaborative effort was to bring justice and order to the garment industry. This was a bit idealistic as many of the owners went back on their words or never accepted the terms to begin with. This was also mirrored with the working women that had striked in 1909 since when the contracts had expired, the owners went back to their old ways.

One of the most life-changing events that occured during this time period was the fire at the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory. On March 25, 1911 a fire started in the company’s workshop on the eighth floor of the building in Greenwich Village. There were mostly immigrant women working on the floor who were trapped. Under a half hour 146 people were dead. The irony was that these women had asked for more sanitary and safer conditions and due to them not being granted, these people had died. This became an example for the “progressive-labor coalition” and they were supported by the 1911 Tammany Hall. This event also propelled labor laws and regulations towards better safety, hours, and working conditions.

Both of these texts together were able to fully encompass what life was like as a working woman in the early 20th century. Foner was able to provide insight about the personal and home life of these immigrant women, especially focusing on how they integrated into American society. On the other hand, Jaffe highlighted more of the history and the way that the treatment of women in the workplace evolved over time. Together these pieces of literature are able to show how far we have come today as well as how the power in the voices of the people has remained constant throughout history. It also should make us feel more grateful for all the opportunities and rights that we now have-rights that people once had to fight until death for.

-Rida Rasheed