A Comparison Between Fourth Dimensional Geometry and Cubist Art Forms
The world around us exists with three different spatial dimensions. However, from as early as the 1880’s, mathematicians have pondered the existence of a fourth spatial dimension, and even higher dimensions beyond that [1]. Yet, living in the third dimension, we are not able to perceive object in hyperspace. In order to view such an object, we can use a slicing method. For example, a sphere passing through a plane would appear, for something in the second dimension, to start as a point, grow larger as a circle, then eventually shrink back down to a point before it vanishes. Using this same method, we can view a fourth dimension object as various changing three dimensional figures, as shown in Figure 1 [2].
Figure 1. (Top) A cube passing through a plane (Bottom) A hypercube passing through the third dimension [2].
This slicing method works only to partially describe a surface. Figure 2 shows the various ways a square would pass through a plane, which is dependent on orientation. Furthermore, viewing these slices separately does not give a clear picture of what the surface actually looks like. Instead, we can use projection to see how a surface like this would exist. Just as one can draw a cube onto a piece of paper by distorting the lengths of edges to give appearance of depth, we can project a hyper surface to the third dimension [1] Finally, perspective can also be used to render higher dimensions, just as Henri Poincaré suggested in 1902 [2].
Figure 2. Different orientations of a cube cast different images in the second dimension [1].
Figure 3. A projection of a hypercube, also known as a tesseract.
One art form that is heavily influenced by perspective, or the rejection of such, is cubism. Cubist work relies on the use of the fourth dimension and its lack of perspective, as Guillaume Apollinaire states perspective is “that fourth dimension in reverse” [1]. Pablo Picasso is one of the prominent artists in the cubism movement, utilizing multiple perspectives, such as one technique in which Picasso layered two photo negatives, synthesizing four paintings in one photograph [3]. Because of the reliance of fourth dimensional geometry, parallels can be seen between renderings of hyper surfaces and cubist works, in some cases by sight alone as seen in Figure 4.
Figure 4. (Left) An example of cubist art by Juan Gris. (Right) Multiple perspectives of octahedra by E. Jouffret. Similarities can be seen between these two images.
Cubism is not the only art form that uses this fourth dimension. Mathematician and artist Tony Robbin utilizes various properties of the fourth dimension to create his artwork [4]. One example of his use of higher dimensions in his work is in the braiding of sheets. As he explains, braiding threads starts with one dimensional lines, which then go over an under one another, requiring the use of three dimensions. Braiding sheets, therefore, requires jumping up two dimensions as well, utilizing this fourth dimension. Figure 5 uses five of these sheets to create one painting. By use of the mathematical fourth dimension, artist were, and continue to be, able to create new works of art, unbound from the world we live in, instead focusing on one we cannot see.
Figure 5. One of Tony Robbin’s paintings, 2006-6.
References:
[1] Henderson, Linda Dalrymple. “The Image and Imagination of the Fourth Dimension in Twentieth-Century Art and Culture.” Configurations 17.1 (2009): 131-160.
[2] Bodish, Elijah. “Cubism And The Fourth Dimension.” Montana Mathematics Enthusiast 6.3 (2009): 527-540. Academic Search Complete. Web. 3 Dec. 2016.
[3] Ambrosio, Chiara. “Cubism And The Fourth Dimension.” Interdisciplinary Science Reviews 41.2/3 (2016): 202-221. Academic Search Complete. Web. 3 Dec. 2016.
[4] Robbin, Tony. 2015. “Topology and the Visualization of Space.” Symmetry 7, no. 1: 32-39.
[5] Henderson, Linda Dalrymple. “The Fourth Dimension and Non-Euclidean Geometry in Modern Art: Conclusion.” Leonardo, vol. 17, no. 3, 1984, pp. 205–210. www.jstor.org/stable/1575193.
Suspended Animation – Inducing Hibernation in Humans to Aid Space Travel
As previously detailed here, lengthy space expeditions have an overwhelmingly negative effect on the physiological and social well-being of a human. Conscious astronauts need entertainment, human interaction, and nourishment. If we were somehow able to slow down the human metabolism and induce them into some sort of hibernation, both expedition costs and psychological stressors would be dramatically reduced.There are different categorizations of hypometabolism – e.g. hibernation, torpor, and winter sleep – and since biologists regularly argue about their usage, I will consider them as similar enough concepts to be synonymous (Malatesta et al. 2007).
Figure 1, presented by Ayre et al., details the main stressors of space travel and the effect that hibernation would have on each stressor.
Figure 1. “Interactions Between Hibernation and Space Environment Stressors” retrieved from Ayre et al. 2004
The only stressors made worse by suspending the astronauts can be alleviated or even solved by a system of onboard gravity. This will make the hibernation effectively a prolonged bedrest (Ayre et al. 2004). Cockett et al. uphold that putting humans into a hypothermic state increases resistance to “shock in dysbarism, bacteremia, trauma, and excessive g-forces” (Cockett et al. 1962).
Experimental trials have been conducted on mice using H2S. Mice exposed to 80ppm of H2S reduced their oxygen consumption by 50% and their carbon dioxide output by 60% within the first five minutes of constant exposure. Leaving them in this environment for six hours caused their metabolic rate to drop by 90% and did not lead to any permanent harmful conditions once removed. These results were very similar to the beginning phases of animal hibernation (Blackstone et al. 2009).
These results showed great promise but were not reproducible in larger animals. There is consequently no long-term experimental method of inducing hibernation in humans. NASA wants to utilize hibernation modules for a manned mission to Mars. They outlined 3 possible methods in a 2014 presentation: lowering the temperature of the body by IV fluids, gel pads, or evaporative gases; using drugs similar to H2S inducing hibernation in mice; and reducing the number of dendrites in certain brain cells. The goal for this mission is shown below in Figure 2 as presented by Spaceworks Inc.:
Figure 2. Spaceworks Inc. hibernation goal for manned Mars mission retrieved from Bradford et al. 2014
NASA’s design for the hibernation chambers of the crew greatly reduces the amount of space needed to sustain the expedition and consequently reduces the size and weight of the spacecraft by a projected 78% and 52% respectively. These reductions can, as outlined earlier, allow for more advanced and larger systems elsewhere on the ship (Bradford et al. 2014).
Ayre et al. further propose the future use of gene therapy and CRISPR editing to create humans with features more conducive to hibernation. Humans can be modified to maintain certain types of more efficient fat storage only present in babies, and with the ability to hibernate astronauts would only need to bulk up muscle and fat mass prior to a mission. It is very possible that future astronaut candidates will be chosen before they are even born (Ayre et al. 2004).
References:
Blackstone E, Morrison M, Roth MB. 2009. H2S Induces a Suspended Animation-Like State in Mice 518
Bradford JE, Talk D. 2014. Torpor Inducing Transfer Habitat for Human Stasis to Mars 1:42
Ayre M, Zancanaro C, Malatesta M. 2004. Morpheus – Hypometabolic Stasis in Humans for Long Term Space Flight 1:15
Malatesta M, Miggiogera M, Zancanaro C. 2007. Hypometabolic induced state: a potential tool in biomedicine and space exploration 6:47
Cockett TK, Beehler CC. 1962. Protective Effects of Hypothermia in Exploration of Space Abstract
Faster than Light Travel Part 2: Traversable Wormholes
Warp drives, as previously discussed here, are not the only candidates for future faster than light travel. Another common topic in both modern science and science fiction is the wormhole, which creates a throat (i.e. tunnel) of spacetime to connect two points in spacetime. A wormhole connecting two distant locations would allow near-instant travel between them.
The typical depiction of a wormhole is the Schwarzschild wormhole, shown below in Figure 1. This type of wormhole is symmetric and typically very unstable due to its geometry.
Figure 1. A n-1 (2nd dimensional space) depiction of a Schwarzschild wormhole; Image source
Visser has proposed a different class of wormholes with a different geometry that leads to stable wormholes in some states (Visser 2008).
Even this stable geometry would not automatically allow the wormhole to be traversed. For a human to be able to travel through a wormhole, the throat would need to be expanded and upheld by a matter with a negative energy density. This matter is called “exotic matter” due to how little we know about it (Morris et al. 1998). The existence of this matter directly violates the weak energy condition, yet Visser states that “It cannot be strongly enough emphasised that the weak energy hypothesis has been experimentally tested in the laboratory, and has been experimentally shown to be false” (Visser 2008). Further, the weak energy condition implies the neutral energy condition, which is known to be violated in many small instances in quantum physics (Visser et al. 2008).
If this exotic matter exists, it is in our best interests to minimize how much of it we need to stabilize a wormhole. Visser (et al.) showed that the amount of exotic matter required can be made “infinitesimally small” by altering the geometry of the wormhole and therefore the wormhole throat (Visser et al. 2008).
One of the biggest issues with the usage of FTL travel is that it may inadvertently invent time travel by letting objects travel faster than the information (e.g. light) they carry. Krasnikov suggests that wormholes cannot cause the proper time of a journey to decrease, although the journey can be near instantaneous when viewed by an observer (Krasnikov 1998). Crawford details that wormholes do not inherently violate causality, and Hawking goes as far as to propose that “the laws of physics do not allow the appearance of closed timelike curves,” i.e. that spacetime cannot be bent into a way as to allow time travel (Crawford 1995, Hawking 1991).
The current scientific community does not know enough about wormholes and their relevant physics to properly speculate on any future usage of them. Our understanding so far is that wormholes may be traversable with some arbitrarily advanced technology, but we are still many years away from detailing exactly how.
References:
Morris MS, Thorne KS, Yurtsever U. 1988. Wormholes, Time Machines, and the Weak Energy Condition 1446:1449
Visser M. 2008. Traversable wormholes from surgically modified Schwarzschild spacetimes 1:12
Visser M, Kar S, Dadhich N. 2008. Traversable wormholes with arbitrarily small energy condition violations 1:4
Krasnikov SV. 1998. Hyperfast interstellar travel in general relativity 1:18
Crawford IA. 1995. Some Thoughts on the Implications of Faster-Than-Light Interstellar Space Travel 205:206, 209:210
Hawking SW. 1991. Chronology projection conjecture 603:611
Faster than Light Travel Part 1: The Mathematical Existence and Potential Application of Warp Drives
Faster than light travel is one of the most ambitious dreams embodied in modern science fiction literature. Our current line of technological development cannot hope to travel to other star systems for at least several generations. Assuming a universal limit of the speed of light, it would take at least 4.37 years for an astronaut to travel to Alpha Centauri, our closest non-solar star. Even with future engineering developments, it will be impossible for humanity to ever explore the universe or even the galaxy with this speed limit.
In 1994, Miguel Alcubierre published a paper that mathematically modelled an effect consistent with general relativity that could move an object (i.e. a spaceship) at an arbitrary speed unbounded by the speed of light. The spaceship would be propelled forward by contracting the spacetime ahead of it and expanding the spacetime behind it. The intermediary ground between the contraction and expansion would create a ‘warp bubble’ as shown in the original figure created by Alcubierre:
Figure 1. The expansion of spacetime by a warp drive traveling in the positive-x direction, where ρ is a projection of the y and z-axes onto one axis; Image source
The most impressive component of this warp drive model is that the passage of time is identical for an observer and the traveler, meaning that no relativistic time dilation occurs in this mode of travel (Alcubierre 1994).
The issue with warp drives, however, is that the warp bubble requires a large source of negative energy and in fact violates all three energy conditions (Alcubierre 1994). Lobo and Visser concluded that these violations persist no matter what the travel speed is, squandering any hopes that slower drives might be able to use normal matter as fuel (Lobo et al. 2004). Pfenning and Ford calculated that in order to transport a single human, the negative energy of the warp bubble wall would not only need to be concentrated in a thickness comparable to the Planck length, but also be ten magnitudes more energetic than the total mass of the visible universe (Pfenning et al. 1997). In any practical sense, the original Alcubierre warp drive is impossible to create.
More recent work by Broeck has shown that the energy requirements of the drive can be significantly reduced by altering the geometry of the warp bubble. Broeck’s example resulted in an energy with the equivalent mass of several suns – still nothing feasible, but much more so than ten billion visible universes (Broeck 1999).
Further work by Natário on the motion of the bubble showed that the spacetime around the warp bubble does not necessarily need to be expanded and contracted. Instead, the motion can be viewed as sliding around the bubble around the rest of spacetime (Natário 2002). This generalized form of warp movement seems to have no reaction fueling it; in fact, Lobo and Visser determined that any form of this warp drive would be a “reaction-less drive” (Lobo et al. 2004).
A reactionless warp drive powered by a source of negative energy is certainly many generations away from its invention. Major functional components of this drive have yet to be discovered, and even then they are currently impossible to efficiently utilize. More discoveries about dark energy may lead to the creation of a field of spacetime in which all three energy conditions can be broken. Until then, humans will have to stick to rockets.
References:
Alcubierre M. 1994. The warp drive: hyper-fast travel within general relativity. 1:10
Natário J. 2002. Warp drive with zero expansion 1:9
Lobo FSN, Visser M. 2004. Fundamental limitations on “warp drive” spacetimes 1:13
Pfenning MJ, Ford LH. 1997. The unphysical nature of “Warp Drive” 6:10
Broeck CVD. 1999. A ‘warp drive’ with more reasonable total energy requirements 1:9
The Advantages and Disadvantages of Microwave Irradiation
Medical instruments and chemicals are used to treat diseases, injuries, infections and to improve our long-term well-being. However, it can also be infectious and pose an increasing problem to our health and safety if its wastes are not disposed of using the proper methods. Fortunately, one currently investigated solution to sterilize and treat medical wastes can be easily found in a conventional microwave oven (Gulyurt, 2012). This technology is called microwave irradiation or microwave synthesis, in which heat and moisture are used with radiation to penetrate and sterilize shredded medical wastes (Drake, 1993). However, like other treatment methods, microwave irradiation has both advantages and disadvantages (Veribesi et al., 2007).
Table 1. Comparison of 4 medical waste treatment technologies. Retrieved from Veronesi, 2007.
Microwave irradiation is one of the current sterilization methods being investigated to treat medical instruments and shredded wastes. One advantage of using microwave irradiation is its suitability to the wide variety of materials; both dry and wet wastes can be sterilized by using the microwave technology (Drake, 1993). Microwave irradiation can be used for sharps, such as needles, knives and wastes containing pieces of metal, as well as soft materials containing blood and body fluids, such as gauze, bandages, drapes, gowns and beddings. This process is also known to utilize smaller equipment, sterilize faster, and create the possibility of indoor operation for hospitals. One experiment showed that some medical instruments could be sterilized within 30 seconds by using a microwave (Border, 1999). However, despite all its advantages, microwave irradiation comes with its own set of problems.
The disadvantages of microwave irradiation are from its limitations and preparation. Although it can sterilize just as much and some cases even a wider variety of materials, this procedure can only sterilize a limited amount of materials at a time. To sterilize waste materials, the wastes must be shredded and prepared properly to be completely sterilized. This process can cause pollutants and infectious particles to be released into the atmosphere and spread contagion. Additionally, after the wastes are treated they still need to be transported to a landfill to be incinerated, which may persist to pollute the air and acid rain around the disposal sites (Bridges et al., 1995). In some cases, microwave irradiation does not possess the necessary heat or power to penetrate a large scale boxed medical waste, which could result in a less efficient procedure than other methods. In addition, its capital investment is relatively high (Gulyurt, 2012).
In conclusion, microwave irradiation proposes a mediocre method in sterilizing and treating medical wastes and instruments. It can sterilize equipment at faster speeds and in a reduced space. However, it is limited to process a small amount of wastes at a time. By shredding the wastes, it requires less power and can sterilize the wastes more efficiently. However, the process of shredding the wastes can cause pollutants to be airborne and spread diseases. Additionally, after the sterilization the wastes are still needed to transport to landfills to be incinerated, which persists to pollute the air and land once the landfill is incinerated.
Sources:
Border, B.G., Rice-Spearman, L. (1999). Mircrowaves in the laboratory: effective decontamination. Clin Lab Sci.Drake, R.C. (1993). Apparatus for Sterilizing Medical Waste by Microwave Autoclaving. US Patent.
Drake, R.C. (1993). Apparatus for Sterilizing Medical Waste by Microwave Autoclaving. US Patent.
Can Steam Autoclaving be a Possible Alternative to Incineration?
Steam autoclaving is a procedure that uses steam, heat, and pressure to inactivate microorganisms and sterilize medical tools (Schipanski, 1969). It was considered to be one of the newest and best alternatives to treat medical waste other than incineration. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency reported that over 90% of the infectious medical waste was treated by incineration before 1997 (EPA, 2016). However, it was found that incinerator emits toxic pollutants that are detrimental to the environment and human health. Dioxin is a typical example of hazardous emission which can lead to birth defects, cancer, diabetes, and immune system disorder (Cole, 1997). Ineffective medical waste management can cause serious public health problems. For instance, improperly transporting mix wastes to open dumpsite can cause soil and groundwater pollution, which may lead to sickness in humans and species living around the disposal site (Su, 2005). For this reason, researchers have been very interested in investigating alternative methods for medical treatment in terms of more cost-effective and safer disposal practices.
As far as medical waste autoclaving is considered to be a relatively new medical waste disposal method, it was actually invented in 1965 by Emil R. Schipanski. An autoclave was designed to accomplish sterilization by inactivating bacteria under steam pressure in a closed chamber (Schipanski, 1969). The procedure would require a shorter time if a higher temperature is applied, or a longer time if a lower temperature is applied to sterilize a population. The optimal condition for sterilization was determined to be at 121 °C and 131 °C for 60 and 30 minutes, respectively (Hossain et al., 2012). Recent studies have found that autoclaving is very advantageous in various ways. It does not require the input materials to change its physical forms whereas incineration burns waste into ashes and gas. Medical tools that were autoclaved can be either recycled and reused again or safely transported to landfills (Hossain et al., 2012). Autoclaving is also found to be more cost-effective than incineration on an economic scale. Although the capital investment to install an autoclave might be triple the price of an incinerator, this loss can be regained through its low maintenance fee and energy consumption. It is also simpler and safer to operate, which can reduce the chance of health care workers getting injured from the handling process (Ferdowsi et al., 2010). The Bio-Medical Waste Rules of India highly recommended using autoclaves to disinfect and treat infectious bio-medical waste (Government of Indian, 2016).
Table 1. The comparison of costs for autoclave and incineration. Table taken from Ferdowsi, 2010.
Steam autoclaving also has several disadvantages. Autoclaving was found not suitable to treat laboratory chemicals, organic solvents, anatomical, pathological, bulky, low-level radioactive, and chemotherapy wastes (Al-Khatib et al., 2009). In addition, the unexpected regrowth of bacteria on sterilized medical tools has been overlooked by many people. A recent study tested the effectiveness of steam autoclaving in deactivating 6 types bacteria. 3 Gram-positive and 3 Gram-negative bacteria were cultured in medical-waste-like environments and autoclaved. All bacteria were found to be inactivated during day zero and day one after the treatment. However, Gram-positive bacteria started regrowing two days after the treatment. After six days, the regrowth of all the bacteria appeared in sterilized tools. This finding indicated steam autoclaving’s failure in achieving sterilization and the results refuted autoclaving as an alternative to incineration (Hossain et al., 2012).
Table 2. Re-growth of bacteria in sterilized waste. Table taken from Hossain et al., 2012.
Although the public is awared of the potential of incineration to emit harmful pollutants, the difficulty of finding a flawless alternative keeps incineration as a popular method of medical waste disposal treatment. Autoclaving does have various advantages such as its cost effectiveness and its potential to have medical waste recycled and reused. However, the failure of its primary goal in sterilization outplayed the advantages. It can only deactivate microorganism for a short period of time whereas incineration is more powerful in eliminating infective agents. Thus, steam autoclaving should not be recommended as a replacement of incineration.
Work cited
Government of India and Ministry of Envirnoment, Forest and Climate Change. (2016). Bio-Medical Waste (Management and Handling Rules). Gazette of India, Extraordinary, Part II, Section 3, Sub-section (i).
Schipanski, E. (1969). Autoclave. US patent.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2016). Medical Waste. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/rcra/medical-waste
Lina Mohamed-Assignment 8
Lina Mohamed Professor Kowach
MHC Writing Assignment 8
How Much Money the U.S. spends on Pharmaceuticals
The United States leads the world in spending on drugs. Our nation revolves around medication because we have been brainwashed into believing that man-made drugs are the only option. Every time we visit the doctors, we are prescribed pill after pill without considering natural alternatives or physical solutions. The United States spends about $1,000 per person per year on pharmaceuticals. This number is about 40% more than the next higher spender, Canada. And more than twice as countries like France and Germany.1 Growth in spending on pharmaceuticals is slowing but it needs to be lowered drastically to ensure that the U.S. inhabitants are getting the healthiest care from health care providers.
Revenue is a big part of why our pharmaceutical companies are politicized. However, people need to realize that we can make money off of advertising and selling homeopathic or physical remedies. These natural alternatives are never advertised in the U.S. All that is seen on television and other devices is man-made drugs.
Figure 1: Spending on drugs in certain countries, with the U.S. leading. (PBS)
The Unites States is one of only two countries that has legalized the diretct-to-consumer (DTC) advertisement of drugs. That is how dangerous this strategy is because it is extremely effective. As Dr. Mercola said:
Mood swings, weight gain, joint pain, tummy problems―you name the ailment, there’s a pill for it. And you, the American consumer, are helping Big Pharma sell it. Don’t believe it? Well, it’s happening right before your eyes, and believe it or not, the United States is one of only two countries in the world that allows this to happen. 2
It is a disgusting and immoral way to bring in revenue but it definitely works. The House Commerce Committee found that every $1,000 spent on drugs ads produced 24 new patients. If advertisements did not work, the drug companies would have abandoned them a long time ago. 40-50% of people go to their doctors to ask about a certain drug they saw an advertisement for. 2
References:
1-Paris, V., OECD (2014) Why Do Americans Spend So Much On Pharmaceuticals? PBS Newshour. Retrieved from:
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/americans-spend-much-pharmaceuticals/
2-Dr. Mercola (2012) So Inherently Dangerous that Only Two Countries in the World Have Legalized This and the U.S. Is One of Them. Mercola.com, Retrieved from:
http://articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/2012/07/16/drug-companies-ads-dangers.aspx
-Deepak, C., M.D. (2002) Alternative Medicine: The Definitive Guide (2nd Edition) Retrieved from Google Scholars: https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=OyrhatOdk9gC&oi=fnd&pg=PA270&dq=natural+alternatives+to+painkillers&ots=68fhOAE58y&sig=-malo2jqTO8ylS5N_CVlAN-PFSo#v=onepage&q=natural%20alternatives%20to%20painkillers&f=false
– Berndt, Ernst R. (2002) Pharmaceuticals in U.S. Health Care: Determinants of Quantity and Price. American Economic Association.
-(Weeks, 2016). Harvard Study Has Good News for Homeopathic Medicine. Integrative Practitioner.
– Desmon, Stephanie. (2013, n. pg.) Politicization of Health Care Preventing Real Changes to Out-Of-Control System, Researchers Suggest. John Hopkins Medicine. Retrieved from Google Scholar:
Physiological Threats to Mental Health in Long-Term Space Mission
The previous writing assignment covered current research on the psychological well-being of astronauts in a proposed long-term space mission. Social and behavioral factors like stress, mood-states, and sleep deprivation were the main threats to the mental health of astronauts. However, another side to this discussion includes the physical and medical effects on mental health from ever-present physiological dangers.
On Earth, CO2 typically constitutes 0.03% of air by volume. On space habitats like the ISS, ventilation of air and air composition are controlled, and are not always perfect. CO2 levels on the ISS are about 0.5%(+/-0.2%), following NASA’s Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentration of 0.7% CO2. However, larger variations in CO2 concentration, from poor air-flow in certain regions of the ISS to unexpected increases as a result of exercise or a larger congregation of astronauts in one area, can pose an actual risk (Stankovic, 2016).
In one study, 22 participants were given cognitive tests under 3 levels of CO2 concentration, 0.06% (600ppm), 0.1% (1000 ppm) and 0.25% (25,000 ppm). Figure 1 shows the results of the study in 9 graphs, each focusing on a component of the tests. In “task orientation,” “initiative,” “basic strategy,” and “breadth of approach,” there are clear deviations in the performance of the group under the 3 levels of CO2 concentration (Satish et al., 2012).
Figure 1: Nine graphs displaying the data of the 22-participant cognitive test, with the three CO2 levels in different colors and points, participant on the x-axis, and score on the y-axis. Each of the nine graphs focuses on a component of the tests.
Though CO2 concentration poses a recognizably legitimate danger in higher-than-normal levels, less research has been done on whether microgravity has a direct affect on the cognition of astronauts. However, one study compared the hippocampal CA1 neurons of rats before and after exposure to 14 days of simulated microgravity (Ranjan et. al, 2014). The study found that the mean area, perimeter, synaptic cleft, and length of the CA1 neurons in the rats all significantly decreased after the simulated microgravity. It concluded that these deteriorations could have a great effect on the learning and memory ability of astronauts, two key cognitive qualities of being an efficient astronaut.
Figure 2: A diagram showing the relationship between radiation exposure during a space mission and the subsequent psychological risk. BHP stands for NASA’s Behavioral Health and Performance program.
Another less-thought-of cause for ill mental health in space, and with less astronaut-based research, is radiation. Figure 2 shows an indirect path from small exposures to radiation to nervous system damage and effects on behavioral health (Slack, 2016).
One study exposed Fischer 344 and Lewis rats to 25 and 100 cGy of proton radiation, performed rPVT tests for rodent cognition and memory, and analyzed certain proteins of their brains after 9 months. The study found that although the the rats exposed to the two levels of proton radiation demonstrated lower accuracy and higher impulsive responding, they did not have rPVT scores that were statistically different from the control group. However, the rats exposed to radiation had significantly smaller frontal cortex proteins and cytokine arrays than the control group, and the baseline dopaminergic functions of the rats were responsible for recovery from the radiation damage (Davis et al., 2015).
Works Cited
Davis, Catherine M., Kathleen L. DeCicco-Skinner, Robert D. Heinz. “Deficits in Sustained Attention and Changes in Dopaminergic Protein Levels following Exposure to Proton Radiation Are Related to Basal Dopaminergic Function.” PLOS ONE. 10, no. 12 (December, 2015) [Cited 20 November 2016].
Ranjan, Amit, Jitendra Behari, Birenda N. Mallick. “Cytomorphometric changes in hippocampal CA1 neurons exposed to simulated microgravity using rats as model.” Frontiers in Neurology. 5 (May, 2014) [Cited 20 November 2016].
Satish, Usha, Mark J. Mendell, Krishnamurthy Shekar, et al. “Is CO2 an Indoor Pollutant? Direct Effects of Low-to-Moderate CO2 Concentrations on Human Decision-Making Performance.” Environmental Health Perspectives. 120, no. 12 (December, 2012) [Cited 20 November 2016].
Slack, Kelley J., Thomas J. Williams, Jason S. Schneiderman, et al. “Evidence Report: Risk of Adverse Cognitive or Behavioral
Conditions and Psychiatric Disorders.” (19) National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (April, 2016) [Cited 20 November 2016]
Stankovic, Aleksandra, David Alexander, Charles M. Oman, et al. “A Review of Cognitive and Behavioral Effects of
Increased Carbon Dioxide Exposure in Humans.” (2-3) National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (August, 2016) [Cited 20 November 2016]
Psychological Well-being in Long-term Space Mission
Though the physiological dangers of a long-term space mission are always going to pose an immediate threat to the health of an astronaut, research and technology can help prevent or reduce the magnitude of their effects. Radiation and microgravity are two such examples of these physical dangers. A much more difficult problem to address is the psychological trauma that results from high level of stress, from dealing with relevant dangers of space to executing tasks with efficiency, and from the general deprivation of space, social contact, and recreation.
A study of in-flight medical events for space shuttle flights between April, 1981 and January, 1988 determined that there were 318 cases of “nervous system and sensory organs” related issues, the second most common, at 17% of all in-flight medical events. There were 34 cases of “behavioral signs and symptoms” related issues, or 1.8% of all in-flight medical events (Slack et al., 2016).
Figure 1 is from a study of 545 journal entries recorded by astronauts aboard the International Space Station. The bar graph shows that among comments regarding how astronauts felt about adjustment to life on the ISS, 58 and 76 entries were in the category of “low morale,” and “thoughts of home,” while in less numbers were “problems adjusting,” and “fatigue.” Also, the majority of these complaints were recorded in the second and third quarters of the mission, indicating that these issues are not just introductory problems, but lasting and developing ones (Stuster, 2010).
Figure 1: Bar graph showing the categorical distribution of journal entries by astronauts aboard the ISS regarding the mental adaption to working in the ISS, with number of journal entries on the x-axis and the categories on the y-axis. The entries are also divided by the quarter of the mission in which they were written.
Negative mood states might seem like temporary obstacles, but besides their direct interference with work and focus during a space mission, they might have prolonged effects. 60 male Marines participated in a study by filling Profile of Mood States, or POMS, before and after a 30-day, high-altitude flight training. The study found that the challenging and lengthy training session not only resulted in negative mood states of the Marines, but that most of the Marines’ POMS indicated negative and stressful mood states 90 days after the training session ended (Bardwell et al., 2005).
Figure 2 is from a source I have used previously in my writing assignments, but I believe these eight graphs do a fine job of illustrating the positive correlation between time in a mission and negative mental states. The figure comes from a study of 6 males in a 520-day Mars mission simulation, whose psychological evaluations were taken in the form of questionnaires throughout the simulation. Figure 2 shows how the majority of subjects had an increase in their levels of stress, depression, and exhaustion throughout the mission (Basner et al., 2014).
Figure 2: Six line-graphs, with each line representing a participant of the simulation, mission days on the x-axis, and psychological score on the y-axis. Each graph reflects one aspect of the questionnaire.
Stress and negative mood states may also interfere with proper sleeping routines, whose consequences not only worsen stress but deprive of focus and cognition. 21 astronauts in space missions aboard the ISS participated in a study on sleep deprivation. The study found that the crew-members had an average of 5.86 hours of sleep 11 days before the flight, 6.09 hours during the ISS mission, and 6.95 hours of sleep in the first week post-mission. These are alarming numbers for anyone who wishes to productively carry out a day’s worth of tasks, let alone an astronaut. Additionally, 12 out of 16 astronauts, or 75%, reported using sleep-promoting drugs. This study shows the effects of the training, work, and stress of a short-term space mission on sleep (Barger et al., 2014).
Works Cited
Bardwell, Wayne A., Wayne W. Ensign, Paul J. Mills. “Negative mood endures after completion of high-altitude military training.” Annals of Behavioral Medicine. 29, no. 1 (February, 2005) [Cited 20 November 2016].
Barger, Laura K., Erin E. Flynn-Evans, Alan Kubey, et al. “Prevalence of sleep deficiency and use of hypnotic drugs in astronauts before, during, and after spaceflight: an observational study.” The Lancet. 13, no. 9 (August, 2014) [Cited 20 November 2016].
Basner, Mathias, David F. Dinges, Daniel J. Mollicone, et al. “Psychological and Behavioral Changes during Confinement in a 520-Day Simulated Interplanetary Mission to Mars.” PLOS ONE. 9, no. 3 (March, 2014) [Cited 20 November 2016].
Slack, Kelley J., Thomas J. Williams, Jason S. Schneiderman, et al. “Evidence Report: Risk of Adverse Cognitive or Behavioral
Conditions and Psychiatric Disorders.” (19) National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (April, 2016) [Cited 20 November 2016]
Stuster, Jack. “Behavioral Issues Associated with Long Duration Space Expeditions: Review and Analysis of Astronaut Journals
Experiment 01-E104 (Journals): Final Report.” (17) National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (April, 2016) [Cited 20 November 2016]
Lina Mohamed-Assignment 7
Lina Mohamed
MHC Writing Assignment 7 Professor Kowach
How do pills Affect our bodies?
Overdosing on prescription drugs and misusing them is a big issue that needs to be addressed. There are so many dangers to poly-drug use. People assume that poly-drug use is not going to occur as long as they steer clear of alcohol while taking certain drugs, painkillers. However, poly-drug effects can happen by simply taking more than one prescription medication for recreational purposes. 2
Mixing opiates and benzodiazepines (benzos) can lead to some serious symptoms and continued misuse and mixing of drugs can lead to internal damage in our bodies. Pills can damage our lungs, stomach, intestines, liver, muscles and kidneys.
Lungs are affected because these drugs suppress the body’s ability to breathe and therefore is associated with a risk of pneumonia. Drug abusers will also experience shortness of breath. Opiates also cause constipation at a normal dosage so overdosing will cause serious problems. Addicts usually end up relying on laxatives to move the bowels or other risk damages. This is a symptom called NBS or “narcotic bowel syndrome”.
The liver is probably one of the most affected organs because pills are broken down and processed by the liver. Therefore, overdosing or taking lots of pills stresses the liver heavily and ends up carrying many toxins from the breakdown process. This is mainly due to the acetaminophen that is many formulas of these drugs. High levels of acetaminophen can cause liver failure in severe cases. 50,000 people are rushed to emergency rooms each year and about 200 die. 3
Abuse of painkillers and exceeding combination suggestions can also have a damaging effect on the kidneys. Severely overdosing can even lead to transplants or dialysis. However, opiate does not cause disable the kidney, it is the secondary analgesics found in acetaminophen. 3
These effects are caused from taking pills and the effects of snorting or injecting these drugs are even worse. People are still not as scared as they should be or just do not fully understand the dangers because it is not advertised enough. There can be simple changes made to reduce the number of overdosing amongst certain groups of people. There are certain groups that misuse pills more than other groups. Health insurers can identify and address improper prescribing and use of painkillers. They can also increase coverage for other treatments to reduce pain, such as physical therapy and other homeopathic remedies.
Figure 1: Shows which states have higher overdose rates illustrated by darker colors (CDC).
References:
1-Deepak, C., M.D. (2002) Alternative Medicine: The Definitive Guide (2nd Edition) Retrieved from Google Scholars: https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=OyrhatOdk9gC&oi=fnd&pg=PA270&dq=natural+alternatives+to+painkillers&ots=68fhOAE58y&sig=-malo2jqTO8ylS5N_CVlAN-PFSo#v=onepage&q=natural%20alternatives%20to%20painkillers&f=false
2-(2002) Dangers of Mixing Opiates and Benzodiazepines: Vicodin, Xanax, Oxycodone and Valium. American Addiction Centers. Retrieved from:
http://americanaddictioncenters.org/prescription-drugs/dangers-of-mixing/
3- What Parts of the Body May Be Severely Damaged by Painkiller Abuse? Narconon. Retreived from:
http://www.narconon.org/drug-abuse/prescription/painkillers/body-damage.html
4-Unknown. (2013, n. pg.) Politicization of Health Care Preventing Real Changes to Out-Of-Control System, Researchers Suggest. John Hopkins Medicine. Retrieved from Google Scholar:
5–(Ullman, 1988) Homeopathy Medicine For The 21st Century. The Futurist. Retrieved from:
