What Rogers is Refuting-
Article refutes common belief that blacks are homogeneous, conforming to all the same political beliefs. This belief is misleading, especially since Afro- Caribbean are a rapidly increasing part of blacks in America and ignores differences within native blacks as well.
Other common thinking also leads to the reasoning that Afro-Caribbean immigrants must chose between being predominantly racial identified, which groups them with African Americans and conforming with their political views, or being predominantly ethnically identified, which isolates the them from African Americans.
Thesis: Black Diversity in the formation of different political beliefs
However, Rogers argues that Afro- Caribbean immigrants can hold multiple identities, simultaneously without contradiction, and that Caribbean people have a distinctly different view on politics than African Americans due to their separate backgrounds.
Conducted his research on 59 first generation, working class Afro-Caribbean immigrants.
Difference between Group Identity and Group Consciousness/ Linked Racial Outlook
Group Identity = self awareness of one’s membership to a group and psychological feeling of belonging to that group.
Group Consciousness= political/ ideological awareness of group’s position in society and collective interest in pursuing the group’s interest
Linked Racial Outlook= Individual’s fate is primarily based on the position/ social perception of their race
How African Americans identity/ interpret the American society
Radical group racial consciousness- more liberal, race plays large part in most of society’s interplay. Collective race ideas in community lead to further progression/ opportunities in America for black
Belief in linked racial fate- individual fates based on advancing the entire race
Believe in government aid to help lessen some socio/ economic racial inequalities in American society, currently and historically, yet cynical of government
Middle class blacks are more likely to subscribe to this group racial consciousness than lower class blacks.
How Caribbean people identify/ interpret American society
American citizens but ultimately ethnically distinguished by a region in the Caribbean
Both identified ethnically and racially- group identification with African Americans but do not necessarily have the same group racial consciousness.
Recognize racism as a barrier in American society, yet are not preoccupied with it as much as African Americans. Believe it can be overcome with hard work and time.
Admire African Americans progress in Civil Rights and resilience throughout American history
Do not put much stock in Linked Racial Fate, believe it does have some impact but fate is usually more individualistic or circumstantial
*Not usually as strongly political in America as African Americans.
Question?
Why and how do Caribbean people differ from African Americans in these regards?
List of reasons:
Commonalities in history/ collective memory, yet key differentiating factors like voluntary/ involuntary migration and segregation under Jim Crow, resulting in different perception of racism and black/ white relations
Transnational networks verse black institutions, differentiating cultural/ social/ political beliefs being instilled- highlighting difference between group identification and consciousness as result of varying socialization
Sense of Home- Caribbean feel accepted within homeland they identify with; while native blacks mostly identify with US but do not feel accepted due to race.
List of Reasons (continued)
Leads into Myth of the Return/ Sojourn Mentality- Caribbean have a form of escape into their homeland, when between two places they can choose a better option; while native blacks do not have an ‘exit option’ and must make do in America.
Alternative Frame of Reference- Caribbean immigrants compare life in America to the Caribbean, which they usually have elevated status just for immigrating; while native blacks compare themselves to whites and the inequalities between them.
Question?
Is Rogers right? Is there a certain affinity between Afro- Caribbean blacks and African American blacks? Or is the divide between ethnic identification and racial consciousness too wide to close?
Why are transnational ties more important to Afro- Caribbeans than other ethnic groups, like the Chinese or Latinos?
Growing Up West Indian and African American:
Gender and Class Differences in the Second Generation
Thesis/ How research was conducted
Explore Caribbean immigrants’ adaptation and accommodation in the United States
Explore how they develop their ethnic/ racial identities
Explore the different dynamics of ethnic/ racial identities between 1st and 2nd generations
Explore reactions between 1st and 2nd generation to American race relations.
This study was conducted on 72 first generation Caribbean immigrants- either teachers or fast food workers, 30 black co workers and 27 white employers in the fast food industry 83 adolescent second generation immigrants- 74 in lower class neighbor with varying educational/ institutional influence and 9 who moved into a middle class neighborhood
How First Generation Caribbean immigrants identity/ affect children
-They identify themselves according to their ethnicity/ national origins, in an attempt to differentiate themselves from black Americans with the assumption that white Americans treat foreigners better.
-Voice negative opinions about black Americans and support the embrace of ethnic heritage to their children
-Face difficulties in passing on ethnic mindsets to children because the children grew up with separate society/ place, therefore, have different perspectives, and do not distinguishing ethnic characteristics that they have.
-Believe that they can overcome racism through hard work, time, and right values/ attitudes
-Fear losing parental control over children or their children losing ethnic identity and identify as a black American because belief it results in social downwards mobility
How Second Generation Identify/ Characteristics (3 Types)
Ethnic American
distancing from Black Americans, emphasizing ethnic Pan Caribbean background
31%, mostly middle class
agree with parents differentiating between native blacks and Caribbean people, most likely view themselves in a superior light
better performance in school
strong national ties either with ethnic institutions or frequent trips to parent’s home
can achieve higher opportunity despite racism
more positive view of being an American
How Second Generation Identify/ Characteristics (continued)
2. Black American
identified with other black Americans, minimized ethnic backgrounds
42% , mostly poorer
Oppositional, disagree with parents trying to differentiate between groups
view race as predominant limiting factor in life, limiting their upwards mobility
opposition to school system, which is seen as ‘white’
less optimistic view of being an American
How Second Generation Identify/ Characteristics (continued)
3. Immigrant
did not chose to be categorized in the American sense
27%, mostly lower class
dress/ speech/behavior clearly indicate foreign birth
include people born in US but visit the islands frequently
strong ethnic identity based on experience in homeland, without distance from native blacks
good in school with advantage of ethnic ties in workplace
Gender Altering Meaning of American identity
Gender did not reflect in choice of identification, but rather the effect of having an American identity.
-Boys have more of a sense of racial solidarity than girls due to exclusion/ disapproval by society. Results in the increased likeliness to differentiate among themselves as ‘acting white’ or ‘acting black.’ Face more racial harassment and perceive little job opportunities available to them. This perception results in their pursue of the opposition of mainstream values.
– Girls do not face the same degree of hostility and exclusion from society. View themselves as having more job opportunities. To be an American, girls view as having freedom from parental control, which parents exercise over girls more than boys.
West Indians as Model Minority versus becoming American
Traditionally immigrating to America means assimilating into society and abandon ethnic ties.
This theory connects to the fact that decision to become American is based on economic success
However, West Indian immigrants are rewarded for maintaining their ethnic identity, resulting in upward mobility because they are perceived as harder working and can then develop trade networks. Being an American means integration into marginalized, race structure, which is perceived to result in downward mobility and worse characteristics.
There is a want to become American but maintaining ethnic ties and having a support networks are the most beneficial. This results in distancing themselves from black Americans and other non-white immigrant groups. The poorer/ more uneducated the immigrant, the more difficult to have long sustaining these ties
Color Line in America in response to Racism and Class (Structural Problems)
-Continual racial inequality in society reflected in its institutions, such as education, public safety, and the job market, will increase oppositional attitudes rather than increase striving among black Americans or second generation Afro- Caribbean immigrants.
-Cultural Racism theory= ‘whiteness’ becomes distinguisher for high classes and better values while ‘blackness’ implies lower class with lower values
-Reflected in how Afro- Caribbean immigrants chose to distance themselves from black Americans, and as Americans in general. Even if they rise in economic standing, there is this perceived inconsistency with ‘blackness’ and middle class values and wealth.
Color Line in America in response to Racism and Class (Structural Problems) (continued).
Ultimately, race hierarchy that cause blacks to be disadvantages and left as a lower class, in association with urban residency problems, result an overall American problem- not just an immigrant problem.
Waters suggests to resolve this issue by eliminating cultural and biological forms of racism (stereotypes/ based on skin), large and small, and instituting policies that help make up for some of the socio- economic racial disparities.
Question?
Compare and Contrast Roger’s and Waters’s Article- How do their views on racism in America effecting Afro- Caribbean immigrants differ or match?
Waters is more negative, and views race and ethnic identification to class and gender into a larger critique of American society and how race is viewed. She does not focus on trans nationalism and mostly works off the concepts of assimilation. Rogers mostly focuses on trans nationalism and difference within the black community, and not larger American society perceptions of blacks and how it results in class difference like Waters did.
Ho speaks about traditional Caribbean matri-focal lifestyles, and how it rose through history. She speaks about how Caribbean people usually focus on family raising children rather than just the parents like an American nuclear family. She also mentions women immigrants must work hard and support their child.
