After becoming the leading cause of victory in World War II, patriotism in the United States was at an all-time high. But a huge cause of concern at the time was the political enigma that was the USSR. The unfamiliarity of “communism” and negative preconception from the first Red Scare fueled by the fear that it may attack the patriotic high ironically led to undemocratic policies that threatened activism and progress. The mid-20^th century “Red Scare” was used as a means to vindicate a series of unethical subversions of constitutional rights of various activist groups to push the right-wing agenda resulting in a generation-worth of set-backs in progressive reforms.

The most memorable element of the second Red Scare is the infamous policy known as “McCarthyism.” The reason that the public bought into the policy was that the classless society that Marx preached seemed eerily similar to Hitler’s “one-race” ideology – which they all just fought a war tooth and nail stop – to the undiscerning eyes at the time. But the fear of this unknown “communism,” also stemming from the original Red Scare, resulted in the rise of McCarthyism, a federally-condoned method of debasing fundamental – literally penned – constitutional rights of suspects under the guise of patriotism utilizing public fear and abusing federal office. This policy only thrived because of the fear it instilled in the public which in turn fed into the policy which gave people in power even more power causing a cycle of fear, panic, and agitation on all parties that tore into the very fabric of our society, something only is commonly seen with fascist regimes. It essentially undermined the basic democratic-republic structure of our society and would have torn it apart if it were not for the checks and balances and other measures in place.

But the fear of the Soviets was not only cultivated through an American echo-chamber of anti-communist themes, but some of it was also based on Stalin’s ruthless techniques to stay in power resulting in the death and starvation of millions. Generalizing communist policies based these facts only seemed to further embed communist sympathizers as the enemy. The communist party in America (CPUSA) was targeted by various government institutions in order to “contain the threat.” Once established as the “others,” objectifying the communists as “threats” and “the enemy” made it easier to excuse the government stripping them of their rights. This is similar to what happened to the Japanese and Japanese-Americans after the bombing of Peral Harbor. Since they were established as the enemy and objectified through government propaganda, the US government got away with stripping away their rights with little to no resistance. While unethical, at least Japanese internment was only limited to just the Japanese. With communists, no one knew who or what exactly is a communist only a few of the things they have in common, and with the threat of Soviet spies, it became easier to dismiss your friends and neighbors.

Even if we ignore the rampant disregard of the humanity of “enemy”-sympathizers, the truly unethical aspect in the practice of McCarthyism was how blatantly abused it was against any criticizers of those in power or their actions in perusing their agenda. Those in power at the time used the murky definition of communist to accuse those who opposed their agenda. The most notable example of this is the subjugation labor unions like the Teachers Union (TU). Many members of the TU “campaigned vigorously for better pay and working conditions… [and] also fought against the unequal conditions for black and Puerto Rican children” who were often crowded into inferior public schools while the Board of Education “concentrated resources in largely white middle-class neighborhoods” (Jaffe 196). This unfair distribution of resources based on income and race serves to only further the class divisions as the policies at the time were set to oppose the so-called “classless” society of the Soviets. However, the teachers speaking out against this were eventually called into question of propagating communism and indoctrinating it into the impressionable minds of young children. While it is true many members of the TU were also CPUSA cardholders, the “enemy” and “other” objectification of communists and the generalization of Stalin’s policy prevented them from getting any massive public support. This led to many teachers being convicted and imprisoned, many of whom were the ones actively fighting the unfair distribution of resources across schools.

With the fear of wrongful imprisonment for speaking out began to settle in the minds of the upcoming generation, it led to a severe decline in activism even after McCarthy’s policy was finished. There were very few progressive reforms that were pushed through at the time. One of the most famous ones being the breaking of the color barrier by Jackie Robinson (Binder 217). However, it is important to note other “opportunities opened very slowly” for other minority groups, and this is largely in part of McCarthyism (Binder 218). But as the heat began to diminish, activists rose up again resulting in monumental breakthroughs for our society regarding segregation and feminism, some even orchestrated by the TU like “Brown vs. Board of Ed.” But it then begs the question, would these reforms have come sooner if it weren’t for McCarthy’s strict policies? If so, how far would we have come today then?

-PR

The Great Depression and World War II, have affected the society in many ways. The Great Depression affects almost all the New Yorkers and people were at soup kitchens. Homeless and unemployed lived in shacked called Hoovervilles. In the chapter, “A Time of Trial” New Yorkers During the Great Depression and World War II”, Frederick Binder and David Reimers stated that “85,000 people waited for free meals at eighty-one locations in front of churches and other charitable institutions.” Municipal Lodging House provided 400,000 lodging and one million meals for New Yorkers. And in order to help out during these desperate times, churches and religious agencies such as the Protestants, Roman Catholics, and Jewish were all trying to expand their aids however many charities still found themselves unable to meet all request for aids. Furthermore, unemployment was a major issue“About one-fourth of New Yorkers were unemployed by 1933”(pg.178). Thus, unskilled laborers such as the Poles, Italians, Irish, Germans, and Jews suffered to find places to live.

The Great Depression affected the lives of different ethnic and racial groups in various ways and to different degrees. Blacks suffered more than whites. “ Median black income in Harlem fell 44 percent..and in the bottom years of the depression more than 40 percent of blacks were out of work, nearly twice the proportion of whites,”(179). Many departments refused to hired black people. They became so desperate to the point black new yorkers opened slaved markets “ where  black women will be carrying signs advertising themselves as available for housework.” Chinese population was also affected by the depression. 30 percent were unemployed. “ The Federal Emergency Relief Administration reported only 1.2 percent of the Chinese population was on relief compared to 23.9 percent of blacks and 9.2 of whites,”(Pg. 180).  Furthermore, “Jewish women, in addition to anti-semitism, encountered sexual bias when they attempted to become doctors or lawyers, (pg. 188).” With the upcoming war and depression going on, Nazism in Germany also affected America.  An American Nazi group called The Bund will attack Jewish people and help rally with Nazi banners and music. However as the war got closer, the government “persecuted Bund leaders” and the organization was dissolved.

Many social and lifestyle also changed due to the depression. For instance, New Yorkers try to keep their kids in school for a better job because the white collar had it easier than the blue collar. “ The number of students attending high school increased by 45%,”(pg. 180).  Jewish men and women are more inclined to seek a higher education compared to other ethnic groups. People moved in with their parents and postponed their marriage and also have fewer kids during this time of hardship.

Furthermore, an important election also happened during this time. In the midst of all this chaos, La Guardia won as the mayor of New York. He got a lot of support from the Italians and Jewish because he helped them gain city position and also came up with a social program that attacked Nazism. La Guardia also has black supporters. The most important reason that he had so many supporters was that he was against political corruption and gambling and he was a “highly visible mayor”. He advocated for New York to have its own airport thus La Guardia airport was built. Furthermore, in order to help with unemployment, mayor La Guardia turned to Robert Moses to “ utilize Civil Works Administration funds to hire 68,000 men to rebuild city parks” (185). Furthermore,  Moses also built roads, parkways, as well as more facilities in a black neighborhood.

The Great Depression also lead to a new form of radicalism. Radicals formed the American Labor party and it consisted of members from Amalgamated Clothing Workers Union, ILGWU and the International Longshoremen’s Union. They gained a lot of popularity however they are divided between communist and the anticommunist.  Thus, it was split and the Liberal Party was formed.

With the depression coming to an end and World War II starting, many ethnic groups came together to support the war because they all had their own reasons. For instance, the “Poles and Czechs wanted their nations liberated from Nazism… [and] the Jews had special reason to support a war against Nazi Germany,” (192). When the War started, New York benefited from the war because men had to enter the armed forces and workers were needed for war-related businesses. People were hired to make clothes for the army and build ships. All racial and ethnic group benefited from the war. Even black workers were hired for the city’s bus and subway systems and black women were hired as nurses. However, even so, they faced much discrimination. Blacks were not able to benefit from rent controls and better housings. Blacks were still at the bottom of the city’s social and economic life.

In the chapter, “Resistance or Loyalty: The Visual Politics of Mine Okubo,” it can also be seen that wartime effect immigrant. When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the lives of Japanese immigrants changed due to the tension between the USA and Japan. President Roosevelt signed the Executive Order 9066, thus many Japanese were forced into concentration camps. Mine Okubo who was sent to those camps  “produced more than two thousand sketchbook drawings, ( Lampert, pg.178).” of her time in the camp.”She reached a mass audience when Citizen 13660, her personal narrative about her camp experience, was published in 1946, shortly after the end of the war and her January 1944 release,”(179). The Citizen 13660 gave the Americans of what actually happened in the camps instead of the “clean” version that the government portrays. Furthermore, during this time of tension, Japanese immigrants and Americans were being tested of their loyalty to the USA. There were questionnaires that they have to answers related to if they were going to be loyal to America and those that answered yes would be released and those that answered no will have to stay in camps. However, some people didn’t answer not because that they aren’t loyal but for them, it was a way to resistance for the way they were treated. For instance, a Japanese named Frank Emi said: “under the present conditions and circumstances, I am unable to answer these questions” and a few others also resisted thus they were sentenced to four years at Leavenworth Federal Penitentiary in Kansas. Thus, through Mine Okubo’s  Citizen 13660 and these cases that have happened, it can be seen that innocent Japanese Americans were treated unequally by the American government during times of war.

Overall, it can be seen that during these times of war, many immigrants or ethnic group are not often treated equally and many have to go through different types of hardships. From the Japanese being sent to concentration camps to Jewish people being attacked by the Bund, it really shows that conflicts and tensions rise in the homeland as well when there is a war and not everyone will get equal benefits and treatments during these times.

L.G

The Great Depression as well as World War II were extremely impactful historical events that changed the lives of many across the country, and their effects could be seen for decades to come. These impacts and effects can be seen in “A Time of Trial” by Fredrick Binder and David Reimers. Although it may seem obvious, it is also important to note that the effect these events had on different racial and ethnic groups varied greatly.

Up until the Great Depression hit, immigration had always been a key part to New York culture. However, this came to a slow halt as people didn’t think that America could offer the same golden opportunities that it had before. The Great Depression affected the entire population in various ways. It left millions of people without any sources of income and they were relying on multiple forms of relief to get by. People stood in lines for hours outside of soup kitchens for food and they went to charitable organizations, such as the Municipal Lodging House, for shelter.  The dependency on these resources increased greatly since, “About one fourth of New Yorkers were unemployed by 1933”(Binder, Reimers 178). Other examples of welfare and aid organizations were the Charity Organization Society, the Children’s Aid Society, and the Urban League. People also used traditional forms of aid such as religious agencies and charities (mainly Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Jewish).

In addition,  the gravity of the problems that New Yorkers were facing cannot even be correctly analyzed as many people were not using the government aid resources that were available. Only 1.2% of the Chinese population was using aid and instead used tactics such as job sharing and aid from loan associations. This was due to a sense of pride and they felt that if they accepted help then they had failed. Although all of these organizations were doing there best to help out and expand their efforts, many of them could not keep up with the high demand. Similar sentiments were felt by New York’s government, and as pressures rose, it was uncovered that public officials were usurping thousands of dollars under Mayor Jimmy Walker. Shortly after these transactions were exposed, Jimmy Walker resigned and was replaced by Fiorella La Guardia. Some of the biggest changes that came from his election were an increased number of black voters, reduced corruption throughout the government, as well as the creation of an airport in New York, called LaGuardia airport.

Overall, white collared workers were able to do better than blue collared workers. After seeing this trend, people started investing in their children’s education and “the number of students attending high school increased by 45%” (180). The majority of these students were Jewish followed by Italians and others. However, the new trend for more education did not change the norm of men being more likely to attend college and further their education than women. Once women did further their education, they were less likely to become doctors or lawyers due to quotas so many became teachers. Getting married later, having less children, and moving in with your parents after marriage, had also become more accepted as people did not have the means to be able to provide for themselves independently. In addition, people were being more disconnected from their “roots” as there was a decline of foreign language movies and newspapers. Another effect of the Great Depression was that unions which were created earlier in the 20th century became significantly weaker.  

Among the people who were affected by the Great Depression, unsurprisingly, blacks had received the shortest end of the stick. In the worst times of the depression, “more than 40 percent of blacks were out of work, nearly twice the proportion of whites.” (179). Numerous businesses in New York refused to hire black workers, and if some did it was usually only because the diversity would benefit them in some way. The African-Americans found a way to combat this issue by boycotting stores that would not hire black clerks. This was able to start some momentum towards the hiring of black people in all business.

As tensions of World War II increased around the world, consequences were seen in New York as many of the homelands of the ethnic groups that made up NY’s population were involved. The Italian and Jewish communities relationships were not greatly fazed by what was happening in their homelands, however there was extreme tension between the Italians and African Americans over the invasion of Ethiopia by Italy. These tensions escalated to fights on the streets. While the war harmed many people, all racial and ethnic groups in NY benefitted as the economy was growing from the war. The wartime also provided jobs for many people in the US, jobs that were desperately needed. In addition, since there was a need for more employees, blacks were now being given the opportunities at jobs. This did not mean that they were treated very well since they still had low income and really poor housing conditions.  Eventually, changes were made that lead to the enactment of a fair housing law for all races. Although there was much discrimination that occurred due to the war, a majority of the ethnic groups stood by the United States and its goals for the war. These groups also made sure to have their positions were broadcasted through public actions as well as printing their thoughts in local newspapers.

While “A Time of Trial” focused on the effect of the war on immigrants in New York, the chapter, “Resistance or Loyalty: The Visual Politics of Mine Okubo,” by Nicholas Lampert focused on what it was like to be a Japanese American during this time, specifically in the West coast. Mine Okubo was forced to leave her entire life behind and live in an internment camp along with 110,000 other Japanese Americans, once President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066. Okubo wrote about her experiences in her book Citizen 13660, which was accompanied by her sketches that depicted what she saw on a daily basis. Her book was published in 1946, and this broadened her audience greatly. In addition, this book was able to act as a primary source for the events that were occurring inside the internment camps, directly contradicting the narrative the government was trying to tell. Her piece very simply just said what was happening; there were no thoughts or opinions associated with her writing. I think that this is what made her book as popular as it became since people were able to feel what they wanted to for themselves and they didn’t have to think from somebody’s perspective.

Through both of these texts, it is evident that ethnic and racial groups across the nation were deeply affected by the Great Depression and World War II. Regardless of specific groups or what part of the country, both of these events changed the course of the people of this nation (and city) forever.

-RR

The Great Depression began in 1929 with the devastating crash of the stock market. This had a massive impact on not only the Big Apple but the country as a whole. It was so devastating that nearly 1/3 of every employed New Yorker was now unemployed. As stated by Jaffe, “The depression hit the arts especially hard. At least 8,000 actors and 4,000 chorus girls and boys were out of work in New York City (179).” Although artists struggle for employment was a nationwide dilemma, much of the emphasis was placed on New York City: “the country’s theatrical heart (Jaffe 188).”

The artists of New York City were tired of their financial situations as well as the government and wanted immediate change. They needed a form of short term financial security to surviving during this terrible financial crisis. Very few people were willing and able to purchase art in galleries so they needed a different way to be compensated. Ultimately, the government provided temporary relief through various different federal programs. For example, the Federal Art Project gave struggling artists opportunities to be employed during the Great Depression. In addition, a program that helped many performers in the theatre industry was the Federal theatre project created by Harry Hopkins to re-employ the performers of the United States. The official goal of these types of programs was to “put unemployed artists back to work, encouraging many different types of art forms that would be appreciated by a large audience, and fostering projects that had a social purpose (Lampert, 151).”

Social change for artists was crucial during this time. Many communist-supporting theatres joined together to fight for their rights. For example, theatres and organizations such as the Workers Dance League began allowing people of the arts (writers and actors) to express their concerns with current politics. In addition, artists from all across the city used the rise of art initiatives to express their political views. Their goal was to eventually cause social change and persuade people to fight for Communism in the United States.

The attempt of social change was not appreciated by everyone. There were a few politicians that did not support the goal of the Works Progress Administration Federal Art Project and other Federal Art Organizations. Politicians would often deem work they simply did not like as “Communism” as well a cut funding for Federal programs which “disqualified the eligibility of more than eighty-five percent of New York artists (Lampert 153)”. The surprising thing about the fight for social change was that at times, leftists themselves did not agree with some of the production. Their claim was that the basic plot of the agitprop performances attracted leftists instead of relating to the labor revolution which appealed to much more people who were on the fence about their political view.

The idea that the government handed over the relief problems out of pure generosity and thoughtfulness is inaccurate; it took the artists a lot of time and effort before even saw a glimpse of financial assistance. The artists of  New York ultimately fought through groups such as the Artists Union and the Unemployed artist’s group to make the relief efforts permanent. This long journey required a lot of lobbying as well as frequent protests to ensure the permanent employment of artists in the community. Contrary to common belief, the struggle for artists employment was not a one time deal; it was an ongoing battle which consisted of many budget cuts from the government leaving artists unemployed for extended periods of time.

Through thick and thin, the artists were able to fight for their rights effectively through their strength in numbers.

-RR

Both Steven Jaffe and Nicholas Lampert describe how despite all the challenges that came with the Great Depression, there was also enthusiasm for the arts that came along with it. Artists, whether it be musicians, actors, dancers, etc. were left with the question that faced millions of Americans nationwide, “What now?”

Steven Jaffe explains that during times when workers were not allowed to form unions, racism was rising, and people were being laid off left and right, artists began using all types of performances to spread joy, and awareness, during a time of chaos. People were being exposed to the real and honest events that were taking place at the time, in a way that made it all the more enjoyable and much less scary. Americans wanted these performances to be funded similar to the Soviet Union, however, the resistance sparked even more controversy and created a great divide between those who felt passionately about the arts in America and those who did not.

Nicholas Lampert on the other hand, describes the many ups and downs that artists went through both prior to, and during the Depression. He argued that artists had always been looking to be funded by the Government in America, though they were very often not so lucky, and therefore this was nothing they had not seen before. They were constantly fighting to be similar to countries like Russia and Mexico, where the arts were welcomed and desired with open arms, and clearly given the right to Government funds. However, American politicians, especially those in favor of the New Deal, grew hostile to this and would simply label those in favor as “Communists.” This alone could often be enough to quiet any opposition. As a result, organizations such as the WPA-FAP were created in order for artists to be provided with the opportunity to do what they loved.

Eventually, artists took matters into their own hands and began lobbying for Federal and State jobs. Temporary relief funds would also be granted, however they could not be relied on to last for an extended period of time. Additionally, the Artists’ Unions was formed where, again, artists would take action in order to obtain work and make sure that administrators were treating their employees fairly. Unionists proved that they were willing to do just about anything in order to have the arts be embraced in 20th century America the way they felt it deserved to be. They would participate in all different campaigns and solidarity actions in order to really take a stance and be heard. Despite the many ups and downs they would endure, the Union displayed artists as laborers and workers, and successfully brought together a great amount of artists all invested in the economic issues that faced the country.

During the 20th century the arts were an extremely controversial and debated topic in America. Whether they should be funded by the Government or how to take a stance on economic issues, artists proved that they were up to the challenge and would continue moving forward no matter how many times they were knocked down.

N.O

During the 1920s, racism, especially to the African Americans, had reached an unprecedented scale and range. Thousands of African Americans were lynched, falsely accused and tens of thousands were segregated, failed to receive the equal benefits and opportunities from the mainstream society led by white people. Started from this point, in Harlem in New York City, African Americans organized together to fight for their own benefits.

During the time white supremacy prevailed, the African Americans suffered, but then resisted with their pens. In 1899, an illiterate sharecropper Sam Hose was accused of killing his landlord and raping the landlord’s wife. Even though other people professed that he was defending himself during a violent argument, he was still assumed guilty and was brutally killed in front of 4,000 people. In Atlanta, on September 22, 1906, about 10,000 white mobs started killing all the African Americans they could find including children just because of the news of a series of suspected rapes of white women by African Americans. Harvard University’s first African American Ph.D. W.E.B. Du Bois was shocked and determined to turn the table for themselves. He joined The Crisis, the publication of NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People). In his writing, he tried to visualize the issues of racism and convey the positive images of black people to catch public attention and promote the status of African Americans. Furthermore, he distributed the publications to the members in Congress, wanting to seduce the government to improve the situations of African Americans. Later, the Dyer Bill defined lynching as the murder of U.S Citizen.

Meanwhile, the other African American activists like Marcus Garvey in Harlem were fighting for a prosperous life in New York City. They created their own city-spade in Harlem to let people like writers, artists, and performers to participate in the discussion of racism. “They created the image of a ‘New Negro’- independent, proud, and willing to fight against racism”(Jaffe 161). It shows that they were having the capability to participate in society as the other ethnic groups did in the US. They were not inferior to white people. Eventually, a series of such events, which called Harlem Renaissance, successfully arose the public attention, generalizing the idea of racial equality to the whole city even the country.

“Let the world understand that 400,000,000 Negroes are determined to die for liberty. If we must die we shall die nobly. We shall die gallantly fighting on the battle heights of Africa to plant the standard that represents liberty” Marcus Garvey had a different vision of the future of African Americans. He wanted to establish the community and systems controlled by black people. He intended that moving to Africa was the only way for black Americans to completely avoid racism. His organization Universal Negro Improvement Association(UNIA), funded by its transportation business Black Star Line, tried to help the African American to move to Africa.

All the efforts that African Americans did in the past intended to improve the social equality in the US, but it was more than just equality. It means that the colored people, the minorities in the country started to think about themselves as the citizens or one of the masters of the United States and were holding the benefits of the country to fight against the racism. It was an improvement of status and human rights for African American, but it was more like the self-redemption: they just fight for what they were supposed to have hundreds of years ago.

-Z.L

In the early 1920s, racism, in its different shapes and forms, took the nation by storm. African Americans were being tested like never before and facing adversity all around the country. Even a place like Harlem, with over 300,000 Black people wasn’t considered safe. This was a time where the Black population had to decide how they would take action and avoid the catastrophes their people were facing too frequently.

Langston Hughes poem “Christ in Alabama” and Billie Holiday’s song “Strange Fruit” give detailed and descriptive insight into how catastrophic these incidences were. They explain that Black people were being tortured, lynched, and killed simply because of the color of their skin. They make no mention of the rape, murders, and crimes that White people claimed the Blacks had committed, because in reality, all these claims were false. Rather, the Whites only said these things to get away with the viciousness and brutality they felt entitled to. Black bodies would be hung for thousands of people to see, and also served as a reminder for people all across the country of what could happen. Both these accounts prove why much of the Black population lived in great fear for the first half of the 20th century.

There were those though who took a stance and became leaders of reform during this time in history. They had different ideals and philosophies on how to end racism once and for all in America. One of these people was Marcus Garvey. Steven Jaffe explains that in 1921 Garvey began the movement of bringing all Negroes back to their homeland, Africa. He felt racism could not be in America any longer if the Blacks were not there either. He started the Universal Negro Improvement Association in order to put his mission of “Africa for the Africans” into action. This would allow his shipping fleet, the Black Star Line, to raise enough money to essentially, be able to transport both cargos and passengers back to the homeland. While this plan excited Black people across the nation, Marcus Garvey made one mistake in his pursuit, that eventually turned this plan upside down.

Marcus Garvey had been so focused on sending all Black people out of America, that he was criticized for having the same mentality as the racists themselves, who claimed that Black and White people must have their own territories and should live in segregation. The NAACP, on the other hand, had an entirely different approach. Led by W.E.B Du Bois, they believed that the only way for racism to stop was by the Black population fighting for the rights they deserved and were guaranteed. They were extremely aggressive in their fight to abolish lynchings, defeat racist legislation, and end the severe discrimination of Black people. The NAACP proved to be much more than just a voice for Blacks, but an organization to rely on in times of need.

Finally, Du Bois’ position as editor of The Crisis contributed to his everlasting legacy. This publication gave brutally honest accounts of the violence by Whites, specifically “The Lynching Crisis.” White people would take whatever means necessary, and make up any claims in order to watch Black people get lynched, and distribute their limbs as “souvenirs.” He wanted to make this known, as well the other opinions he had on key controversial topics. He wanted to show the danger of race prejudice, believed in the “Talented Tenth”, and wanted to showcase the Black middle class as a beacon of hope and empowerment.

Despite the terror that most of the American Black population felt prior to the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s, there were also those who took it as an opportunity to make a change. Whether it be through silent marches, personal and opinionated publications, or joining one of the many organizations formed during this time, African Americans showed that they would do whatever it took to end racism and create an America they desperately needed.

-Molly Ottensoser

“Jews and Italians in Greater New York City, 1880 to World War I” explored patterns of immigration amongst the Jews and the Italians. New York continued to be a place of refuge for many immigrants alongside being an economically, politically, and spiritually attractive place to settle. While many Jews used their industrial skills as an advantage and others strongly believed in movements like the Bund, which was the Jewish branch of the Social Democratic Party, there was a portion of Jews who rejected immigration on the basis of religion, believing that America was a land lacking spiritual values and people were plagued with greed. Thus, it wasn’t until persecution intensified that leading rabbis and their followers joined the mass migration. Due to intense oppression, well-educated and politically active Jews consisting of Bundists, Zionists, and Yiddish poets became part of the immigrant stream. This stream differed from the prior immigrant group known as the shtetl, or small town dwellers. They were more urban-industrial, less orthodox, and more attracted to secular education.

With the growth in the Jewish population, the city’s demographics were affected as the Lower East Side became increasingly congested. The area’s Tenth Ward was said to be more densely populated than the worst districts of Bombay. Jewish migration increased further with new bridges and subways that made Brooklyn more accessible. Jewish neighborhoods arose in Williamsburg, New Lots, Coney Island, and Harlem.  

In the late nineteenth century, there was a rise in anti-Semitism, frightening the German-Jewish population that this resent would spread due to the new Eastern European Jews. While they voiced their concerns of living with them, the German-Jewish community wasn’t insensitive to the Eastern European Jews. Western European Jews worked towards getting immigrants to America, forcing the German-Jewish population to accept their close existence. German- Jews  did try to influence the new batch of immigrants by introducing americanized lifestyles to them. German-Jews established associations and agencies like the Educational Alliance that provided vocational and citizenship training. Alliance directors, once strict about their programs and upset by resistance to americanization, soon became more responsive to their members’ desires and introduced classes in Yiddish language and culture. German-Jews solved what they believed as embarrassing problems through organizations such as The Jewish Prisoners Aid Society and the Lakeview Home for Jewish Unwed Mothers.

While violent crimes were uncommon in Jewish communities, the most widespread and disturbing crime was prostitution. The Lower East Side became known as the “world’s brothel” and more than 2000 prostitutes were Jewish.

For those people seeking out faces from the native shtetlach group, the landsmanshaft organizations proved useful. These organizations promoted cultural continuity and unity and provided various social services like housing and life insurance. One of the most significant organizations, the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society provided burial facilities for immigrant Jews who died on Ellis Island.

Unlike other contemporary immigrants, Jews were better suited for the urban life in New York as they were well trained in the world of commerce and manufacturing, thus increasing Jewish dominance in the garment industry. By the 1880’s, 90 percent of businesses were owned by German Jews. Jews also experienced unfair labor practices, which led to the formation of the International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union. Union membership became even more important with the Triangle shirtwaist fire.

In terms of politics, Jews began by following the German community in casting their votes for the party of Lincoln. However, as political groups started becoming more responsive to their concerns, two political strains competed for their votes. The Republicans were vocally critical of Russia’s anti-Semitic policies. On the other hand, many Jews were voting for Tammany, in hopes of electing a candidate who promised a clean government, legislation to improve working conditions, opposition to immigrant restrictions, and criticism of czarist Russia. For these reasons, Theodore Roosevelt’s progressivism gained support from Jewish Republicans. The Socialist party gained much popularity in the Jewish community with Morris Hilquit’s candidacy who advocated for material improvement and resented corruption and inequality. Although his candidacy fell short against Tammany and the Republicans, another socialist party candidate running from the Lower East Side, Meyer London won a seat in 1914. Many believed this was due to the understanding that socialism was actually “Judaism secularized.” Secularism became more important than orthodoxy evident through the impact urban life had on the declining centrality of religion among Jews. This mov was fueled by declining religious education and a short supply of rabbis.

A push away from strong religious values aligned well with the push away from cultural traits that Jews believed would be possible through schools. Even daughters were encouraged to attend for this reason. Educational attainment was a popular ideal in the Jewish community, but met with obstacles due to the lack of facilities and the fact that students had to leave school early in order to work.

Out of all the cultural practices remaining in the community, the Yiddish theater was the most popular. It provided its community with an escape from the poverty and drudgery they dealt with in their everyday lives, while showing its audience what their reality was. The subject matter of plays were commonly realistic and relatable including generational conflict, dealing with both secularism and religion, and balancing an ethnic identity. The Yiddish theater became a way of participating in the American life.

Italians, different from Jews, closely resembled groups in the old immigration due to their lack of urban-oriented skills. Italian men provided manual labor and were even appointed by workers to be strikebreakers. Labor contractors, known as the padroni, took a share of newcomers’ wages and in return helped the Italian find housing, jobs, and wrote letters for the illiterate immigrants. While they soon became less essential in the Italian immigration, they had gained opposition by native-born American who didn’t agree with contract labor, as it resembled slavery.

Italian communities, especially Harlem was plagued by crime. Sicilian immigration brought with it members of the Mafia. Sicilian criminals engaged in written threats, called “Black Hand”, demanding money for protecting businesses. While Black Hand threats were common, organized large-scale migration of the Mafia was not. Nonetheless, a separate Italian division was established in the police.

While at first Italians occupied unskilled construction jobs, they did see an upward path of occupational mobility. The amount of children of immigrants engaged in white collar work grew immensely and by the outset of World War I, they had become a significant portion of the emerging middle class. The city’s Little Italys consisted of bankers, newspaper editors, owners of large barber shops, and importers. Soon, they had access to better housing.

In terms of religion, the Italians faced opposition by the Irish hierarchy that existed in New York’s churches, who believed that that Italians were too lax, anti-clerical, and poorly trained. The Italians, on the other hand, didn’t trust churches in America. This distrust existed in their churches in Italy as well as they believed the hierarchical organization of the church was not responsive to their needs. To solve this problem between the Italians and the Irish, Archbishop Michael A. Corrigan and John Cardinal Farley requested more Italian priests and expanded parish activities in Italian neighborhoods.

To conclude, while the Jewish experience differed greatly from the Italian, the outbreak of World War I affected both populations similarly, stimulating the Americanization process. Over time, both groups like many immigrant groups would grow distant from their ethnic identities.

-K.A

When President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation of proclamation in 1863, it brought with it the hopes of freedom, and rights for the numerous suffering at the whims and mercy of the white Americans. Although it banned slavery, it had barely touched upon the greater meaning of freedom. The face of a black man still garnered resentment and lack of humanity in the minds of many white Americans as they sought to dehumanize the African Americans. The lives of many people of color were far from suitable in the American South, despite housing ninety percent of the African American population. The lack of rights and an overwhelming slew of violent incidents drove many African Americans from their homes and sent them clamoring for a glimpse of freedom in the north.

Between 1910 and 1930, the black population of New York City experienced a significant boom as the pollution grew from around 91,000 to and overwhelming 327,000, making NYC the world’s largest black urban center. For the many black southerners searching for a new life without racial discrimination and poverty, Harlem became the epicenter of opportunity. It garnered the attention of many immigrants of color, seeking opportunities and a new chance at life. As W.E.B Du Bois dubbed Harlem the gathering point for the “Talented Tenth,” a generation of educated, self-educated and fiercely ambitious black men and women bent on making a better life for themselves. Harlem boasted many writers, artists and performers who sought to rebrand the image of black Americans to a “New Negro,” an independent and proud set of people, willing to fight against racism. This resurgence of a new fervor against racial discrimination gave way to the creation of new associations such as Marcus Garvey’s Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) and W.E.B Du Bois’s National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). While both Du Bois and Garvey sought to end racial discrimination and violence against African Americans, they held completely opposing views as to how they may bring about the needed change.

Marcus Garvey was a Jamaican printer who settled in Harlem in 1916 after living in South and Central America and London. He had dedicated his life to improving condition for the African Americans. His goal was to unite “all the Negro peoples of the world into one great body to establish a country and Government absolutely their own” (Jaffe 162). Being a compelling speaker, Garvey was able to establish the UNIA and in 1921, 121 of his key supporters signed a “Declaration of the Rights of the Negro Peoples of the World,” declaring their reclaiming of the continent of Africa and appointing Marcus Garvey the “Provisional President of Africa.” Garvey’s true vision of freedom was for every African American to go back to Africa and live without the rule of the white man. He demanded that African Americans should “‘give up the vain desire of having a seat in the White House’ in exchange for governing ‘a country of our own’” (Jaffe 163). In order to gain funds for such a mass exodus, the UNIA decided to create their own shipping fleet, the Black Star Line. According to Garvey, the fleet would carry passengers and cargo in order to attain funds necessary for the departure back to Africa. Additionally, Garvey had become convinced of the notion that the Republic of Liberia in West Africa would be ideal for his African homeland. As WWI ended near the closer of the 1920, many of Garvey’s followers eagerly awaited the exodus after getting laid off their jobs and being desperately in need for help. However, their wait turned into a permeant stay as Garvey lost sight of his goals amidst rising rumors challenging his leadership and his movement. In 1922, Garvey met with Edward Clarke, a leader of the KKK and declared that America “is a white man’s country” (Jaffe 171). This enraged many of his followers as they lost faith in Garvey’s passion for change. Many viewed him too willing to accept segregation and injustice. Further adding to his diminishing popularity with his followers, Garvey was convicted and imprisoned for mail fraud in 1925. Although Garvey’s image faded from the minds of many of his followers, his message still resonated in the minds of many such as Malcolm X and several Black Power militants who garnered attention in the 1960s and 70s.

The NAACP became the symbol for opposition for the UNIA, led by W.E.B Du Bois, The NAACP’s publicity and research director, considered to the nation’s leading black intellectual. While Garvey had preached for separation from the white society and pushed for self-reliance, Du Bois urged African Americans to fight for the right that were due to them as citizens. Although NAACP consisted mostly of black Americans, it also boasted several white abolitionists and gained financial help from The American Fund for Public Service, established by a wealthy white leftist by the name of Charles Garland. The organization demanded very specific changes such as, “abolition of lunching… the Negro’s untrammeled right to the ballot… the abolishment of ‘Jim-Crow’ [railroad and street] cars; equal educational and industrial opportunities; and the abolition of all forms of enforced segregation” (Jaffe 168). Additionally, in contrast to Garvey’s agenda, NAACP used the legal system in order to get rid of racism. For example, in 1917, NAACP lawyers garnered a major victory as they gained the agreement of the US Supreme Court in the case of Buchanan v. Warley, establishing that that several laws across the country violated the 14^th amendment by barring black people from buying property in supposedly white neighborhoods. In 1913, NYS passed a law to end racial discrimination in “all public resorts, places of amusement, and public accommodations.” While many businesses refused to abide by the law, the NAACP fought back with lawsuits, forcing businesses to obey the law and end racial discrimination. As the UNIA had sunk along with Garvey, the NAACP had become the hope for many people of color across the nation. The Fifth Avenue headquarters of the NAACP became the hub for many black activists as they garnered the force for lawsuits and legal defenses to fight racial injustice.

One of the biggest influences of change during the Harlem Renaissance was NAACP’s publication The Crisis, edited and led by W.E.B Du Bois. Du Bois was the first African American PhD from Harvard University and served as the editor for The Crisis for nearly 25 year, giving him the opportunity to create a movement to end racial discrimination and bring an end to lynching. In order to bolster the notion of white supremacy in the American South, lynching had become the normal way to instill fear in the hearts of the black community. As Nicholas Lampert stated, “The Tuskegee Institute estimated that 4,742 people were lynched in the United States between 1882 and 1968” (122). This horrifically high number barely serves to scratch the surface of the numerous injustices committed against African Americans. Du Bois had sought to change the people’s acceptance and government’s willingness to turn a blind eye towards the inhumane crimes committed against African Americans. He stated, “From first to last I thought strongly, and I still think rightly, to make the opinion expressed in The Crisis a personal opinion” (Lampert 123). Du Bois established the publication as a platform for him to bring attention to the real issues and plight of African Americans.

While in 1910 the first issue sold 1,000 copies, in 1919, the circulation reached its peak at around 100,000 copies sold, garnering interest in the NAACP while bringing attention to the injustices plaguing the people of color. Du Bois used graphic images in order to help bring his point across. For example, he used a postcard with a photograph of lynch mob with a murdered African American, meant for inciting fear in the hearts of the black community, in order to bring to light the criminals and their horrific crimes. In defense of his aggressive and explicit message, he stated, “Can the nation otherwise awaken to the enormity of this beastly crime of crimes, this rape of law and decency?” (126). Readers of the publication were forced to think past the gruesome and aggressive nature of the photographs in order to move toward anger and collective action. Du Bois wanted to provoke the government into taking a serious action towards protecting all citizens, not on the whites. In 1916, Du Bois published an issue called “The Waco Horror” in response to the lynching of Jesse Washington, a seventeen- year- old mentally handicapped teenager who was killed in front of a crowd of 15,000 at City Hall Square in Waco, Texas. The issue outlines the horrific process of lynching as it contained seven images, chronologically leading the viewers through the graphically brutal murder of a young boy. The increasingly graphic nature of Du Bois’s issues in the publication garnered attention far and wide, awakening the nation towards the brutal murders of African Americans. In addition to his explicit and unapologetic issues in The Crisis, Du Bois had also started the tradition of unfurling of a black flag that read “a man was lynched yesterday” outside the NAACP offices’ window on Fifth Avenue. This forced the New York City public to accept the dire nature of racial injustices and the need for change.

In addition to abolitionist such as W.E.B Du Bois, many writers, poets and artists of different backgrounds used their platforms to preach the need to end racial discrimination. For example, Langston Hughes a black poet known for his colorful portrayals of black life in America from the twenties through the sixties, wrote the poem “Christ In Alabama”. The poem brought attention to the senseless and needless murders of African Americans across the nation, simply based on the color of their skin. He juxtaposed blacks with Jesus as he claimed that blacks were being murdered the way Jesus was persecuted for simply being different. Additionally, the famous jazz star Billie Holiday sang the song “Strange Fruit” in order to bring attention senseless lynching of black in the American South. These artists differed from the normal way of bringing attention to important topics. However, the used their platforms and the tools they hand in order to play their part towards bringing a necessary change for the African Americans.

-SQ

The face of New York City’s landscape was completely changed politically, geographically, economically and socially post world war one.

Once the war was declared and the United States had allied themselves against Germany, German immigrants were torn between supporting their home country or their new home. Choosing allegiance was difficult for immigrant families as they wanted to avoid criticism from White American citizens, but at the same time wanted to be patriotic towards their native land. Prominent German Americans such as George Sylvester Viereck, a poet, continuously defended Germany and raised funds for relief. After it was discovered that he was under Kaiser’s payroll, the poetry society of America revoked his membership. Soon after, Theodore Roosevelt declared all hyphenated Americans devote their loyalty to the American cause without hesitation. The Germans were generally known for their achievements in science, literature, etc. But the war tension made people look at them with suspicion, even the loyal Germans. To avoid scrutiny and hatred, famous German institutions such as The German Hospital and Dispensary became “Lenox Hill Hospital”. Furthermore, German- speaking churches switched to the English language.  Like the Germans, many other ethnic groups felt the pain of war and returned to fight for their native country. Jewish New Yorkers, who fled Russian Persecution were not eager to support Russia in the war. While most Americans encouraged the war, there were also many who opposed the cause. Jewish anarchists living in East Harlem printed circulars criticizing America’s intervention in the war. In August 1918, they were arrested under the sedition act and were deported to Russia. The Irish Americans were not in favor of America’s alignment with Britain as the British suppressed Dublin’s Easter Rebellion of 1916. They thanked Germany for supporting the cause of the Irish freedom.

The war greatly disrupted immigration to America from Europe. Before the war began, there were about 1.2 million immigrants. During the war, only 110,330 people arrived on American soil. Numbers began going back to normal after the war ended. However, Congress then passed the National Origins Act, which limited immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe. After the war, German influence had diminished. Many moved from Brooklyn and Queens to sections in Manhattan. This was made possible by the ever-expanding subway. Moreover, innovation was sparked and new laws enabled buildings with self-operating elevators to replace old walk up tenements. Queens and Bronx were changed to give way to garden apartments as getting to work was made easier by mass transportation. With new Schools and hospitals, almost everything was being constructed. Jacob Ruppert built Yankee Stadium right opposite Harlem, South Bronx. While most “ghetto” immigrant neighborhoods were mixed, East Harlem was taken over by the Jews and Italians. The Irish started moving to nicer neighborhoods and left the slums of lower Manhattan. Following the path of the upward moving Irish, the Jews traced their footsteps and migrated to the Bronx for a better way of life. Neighborhoods such as Fieldstone and Riverside in the Bronx were closed to the Jews because of anti-sematic laws. While the Italians weren’t as successful as the Jews, they started moving away from the congested mulberry blend.

Even though European migration was reduced following the war, the Black population drastically increased. In 1930, the Black population was about 327,706 people (4.7% of NYC’s population). A number of Blacks worked as domestic help in the homes of affluent white residents. Many Whites became anxious at the black influx into Harlem, “their neighborhood”. From Harlem emerged a new artistic output stressing a unique Black culture. Black people had to pay more for a three-bedroom apartment than White people had to- about eight dollars more per month. Incomes started to rise for the Germans and Irish post war. Germans moved into skilled laboring positions and the Irish were given jobs on the city’s payroll through politics. Irish women started gaining influence in teaching at schools. However, political power started shifting away from Tammany Hall and the Irish when Hyman Schorenstein became the first democratic Jewish district leader In Brownsville. After the war, Athletics were reformed too. Immigrants who weren’t allowed to participate before, played in the big leagues for baseball. While many Jewish and Italians lacked the facilities to improve their game, players like Hank Greenberg and Joe DiMaggio revolutionized the game and became idols to millions of immigrants. Most Jews made the big money and attained great fame through the sport of Boxing. Many Jews on the other hand sought out to become educated.

Through the city schools such as Hunter, Jewish women started to become recognized as teachers. But because of the anti-Semitism that occurred in New York City, schools such as NYU and Columbia restricted Jewish enrollment. A vast number of immigrants and their American offspring indulged in illegal activities to make ends meet. Quite a few of the Irish involved in politics started taking bribes. Also, the enactment of national prohibition opened the door for ethnic bootleggers. From Brownsville, came Murder Inc: A combination of Jewish and Italians who specialized in killing rival gang members. The roaring twenties did little for the Black community. They remained poor and discriminated against. After a lot of pressure, Edward Johnson became the first Black elected to New York State’s assembly. Blacks then started to move away from the Republican party to the Democratic party. Like the Black’s, Puerto Ricans in 1917 didn’t see much progress. They were employed largely in unskilled labor.

New York’s Asian population remained largely isolated from the ethnic groups. Chinatown was a bachelor society, with six men for every women. However, passing the area off as “opium dens” Chinatown became a tourist attraction. The Japanese generally settled in NYC in Brooklyn. They worked in the food service industry and others worked for the Japanese government. Indians who settled in NYC formed a Pan Aryan Association, which focused on ending British rule in the homeland. The Orthodox Jewish community was growing with the creation of Jewish day schools, yeshivas. New York City also received a lot of Ukrainians including about five thousand exiles from the communist revolution in the Soviet Union. New York City also inhabited the nation’s largest Greek population.

It’s evident that the war changed lives drastically for the immigrants in New York. For the Germans, Italians and Irish it was a period of prosperity where they moved into more refined neighborhoods. Jewish women were gaining importance out of the household. While it was a period of advancement it was also a time of turmoil for people of color as they were treated unfairly. The exclusion of specific people from high paying jobs and adequate housing really makes us contemplate the life lived in the 1900’s. It makes us feel that some are luckier than others being born into a certain religion or having a specific skin color. It’s scarring and still exists in some parts of “modern” New York today.

– A.S