Worldbuilding in Fiction Literature
The central component of transmedia storytelling is worldbuilding, or the creation of a world within a given plot line. A classic example of this is in J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter, in which a wizard world is created for protagonist Harry Potter and all subsequent characters to inhabit. In terms of transmedia storytelling, worldbuilding acts the link between the different types of media used within a single theme in order to expand that central idea. The idea is that all media used in developing either a story, brand, or product is essential to the overall experience of the user. This means that there isn’t a distinction between a “primary” and “tertiary” medium, but rather that they are regarded as a collective machine that guides the user’s interaction with said product (Kompare, 118).
Additionally, it is also important to understand that worldbuilding isn’t a strategy employed for a niche audience. That is how it differs from transmedia storytelling; the world that is created is accessible across all demographics. Both a 14-year old and a 40-year old both have the same access to world built by either the creator or the audience, or in some cases both. What matters is that the content is autonomous, meaning that there is no predisposition of a world to a certain group (Burcher, 227). While a book itself or the central theme behind a story may cater to a specific audience, the world created is part of the larger picture, one that even the creator may not have imagined from its inception.
Figure 1. Process of worldbuilding.
Literature, fiction in particular, is the quintessence of worldbuilding practices. The motivation behind writing fiction is to create a world and a storyline that feeds the escapism that themselves; there is a visceral connection that established between the author, the reader, and the fictional world that entirely encapsulates the wishes and desires of the human mind while still maintaining a healthy amount of separation from the content present (Fleckenstein, 297). The strength of worldbuilding is in its ability to play off the human psyche and capitalize on that comprehension to draw in the reader/user/consumer to remain attached to the world at hand.
As wonderful and empowering it may be to the individual, worldbuilding can also have the adverse effect in terms of emulating reality. A world can be equally realistic as it is surreal, as seen with dystopian games like Angry Birds and Necromancer that parallel morose events in real life (Servitje, 85). Regardless of its positive or negative approach, worldbuilding is crucial in fiction literature as a means of drawing in the reader. The quality of a novel is often judged by the intricacy and plausibility of its world. This idea of world replacing or becoming reality is why advertisers and companies are so willing to get on board with the transmedia storytelling process.
Works Cited:
- Kompare, Derek. “Conference Report: Futures of Entertainment 3, November 21-22, 2008, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA.” Cinema Journal, vol. 49, no. 1, 2009, pp. 116–120. www.jstor.org/stable/25619748.
- Burcher, Charlotte et al. “Core Collections in Genre Studies: Fantasy Fiction 101.” Reference &Amp; User Services Quarterly, vol. 48, no. 3, 2009, pp. 226–231. www.jstor.org/stable/20865077.
- Fleckenstein, Kristie S. “Writing Bodies: Somatic Mind in Composition Studies.” College English, vol. 61, no. 3, 1999, pp. 281–306. www.jstor.org/stable/379070.
- Lorenzo Servitje. “H5N1 For Angry Birds: Plague Inc., Mobile Games, and the Biopolitics of Outbreak Narratives.” Science Fiction Studies, vol. 43, no. 1, 2016, pp. 85–103. jstor.org/stable/10.5621/sciefictstud.43.1.0085.
Use of Raman Microspectroscopy in Various Art Mediums and Discoveries
What is Raman microspectroscopy?
Raman microspectroscopy is one implementation of chemical studies to determine authenticity, degradation effects, and identification of raw materials and their processing (Kelloway and Birmingham). It is the study of light and the manner in which light is scattered, producing a spectra that can reveal much about an artwork and its content beneath the surface.
Leonardo da Vinci Painting
Art conservation is a heavy task involving high stakes – in the art market, millions of dollars are at risk, and there is also the moral responsibility of preserving cultural heritage. Raman microspectroscopy is extremely helpful in discovering forgeries, or in the case of the recently discovered Leonardo painting, establishing authenticity. Salvador Mundi was originally thought to have just been a copy created by Boltraffio, a studio artist working under Leonardo, but chemical analysis revealed it to be an original (Reyburn). The surface layers, consisting of varnish and overpaint, had concealed the identifying characteristics of Leonardo paintings. Raman microspectroscopy was used in conjunction with infrared spectroscopy to reveal the layers beneath the surface, detecting and identifying inorganic pigments and their spectra, as well as the exact order in which paint was applied to the surface (Tague). Such a discovery was extremely noteworthy in contemporary times, when all Leonardo paintings were thought to have been known, catalogued, and in possession of museums and collectors. It quickly sold for $80 million, a high price to be expected because a situation involving the “discovery of a Leonardo” may never happen again.
Pottery and Ceramics
As mentioned before, Raman microspectroscopy can be implemented in the study of degradation and identification of materials from a chemistry standpoint. Such analyses often reveal more than just chemical composition when studying ancient pottery – it serves as an indication of the culture these materials are from as well as its ceramic traditions and how such pottery techniques developed. Raman microspectroscopy can be used to identify glaze inclusions and their origins for future reference (Kelloway and Birmingham). In the case of the 19th century Australian pottery, Raman spectra from inclusions identified in the glazes allowed scientists to determine the glaze ingredients used as well as the potting techniques and practices from which the ceramics were made.
Copper Alloy Artifacts
Raman microspectroscopy was used in conjunction with other art conservation methods to study the blue corrosion products found on copper alloy artifacts from the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco and the Detroit Institute of the Arts (Trentleman). Raman spectra of the blue corrosion product was analyzed, and results indicated the presence of formate and acetate groups, which helped enforce a theory that scientists had. The corrosion product may have been caused by chemical reactions between copper alloys and acid vapors from the storage or display case materials, a discovery that could lead to complications in the way art is stored and shown to the public.
Example of spectra taken from a painting – each line represents a different color present in the piece examined.
Works Cited
KELLOWAY, SARAH, and JUDY BIRMINGHAM. “Profiling Nineteenth-Century Australian Potteries: Approaches to Provenancing Ceramics and Identifying Potting Practices.” Australasian Historical Archaeology, vol. 28, 2010, pp. 35–42. www.jstor.org/stable/41433074.
Leona, Marco et al. “Identification of the Pre-Columbian Pigment Maya Blue on Works of Art by Noninvasive UV-Vis and Raman Spectroscopic Techniques.” Journal of the American Institute for Conservation, vol. 43, no. 1, 2004, pp. 39–54. www.jstor.org/stable/3179850.
Reyburn, Scott. “Putting a Price on Leonardo.” The New York Times. The New York Times, 09 Mar. 2014. Web. 26 Nov. 2016.
Tague, Thomas J., Jr. “Utilization of Infrared and Raman Micro-Spectroscopy for the Chemical Analysis of Art.” Forensic Magazine. N.p., 12 Feb. 2013. Web. 26 Nov. 2016.
Trentelman, K. et al. “The Characterization of a New Pale Blue Corrosion Product Found on Copper Alloy Artifacts.” Studies in Conservation, vol. 47, no. 4, 2002, pp. 217–227. www.jstor.org/stable/1506782.
Breast Cancer and the Notch Signaling Pathway
Breast cancer is one of the most common genetic disorders. About one in three women are diagnosed with breast cancer in the United States (DeSantis 2013). Treatments such as chemotherapy are effective, but most of them do not work on cancer stem cells and metastatic tumors. Cancer stem cells are a type of cancer cells that can self-replicate indefinitely (Kai 2009). Researchers believe that they can break off from primary tumors and grow secondary tumors elsewhere in the body, which are more commonly known as metastatic tumors. Metastasis and recurrence cause the majority of breast-cancer related deaths (O’Shaughnessy 2005). In women who are diagnosed with breast cancer in its early stages, nearly 30% will have their cancers progress into Stage 4 breast cancer, or metastatic breast cancer (O’Shaughnessy 2005). It is imperative that treatments that are effective on metastatic tumors are found because metastatic tumors are responsible for many cancer patient deaths. Gene expressions of cancer stem cells are being studied in order to know why they do not respond to most chemotherapy. In addition, researchers are working to produce new treatments that can target cancer stem cells.
Figure 1- Notch Signaling Pathway. Source: Al-Hussaini 2011
One way to target cancer stem cells is by inhibiting the Notch signaling pathway, shown in Figure 1. In normal cells, the pathway is paramount in regulating cell proliferation, differentiation, homeostasis and apoptosis, or programmed cell death. Cancer cells have Notch signaling pathways that are deregulated. In breast cancer, Notch signaling helps stem cells grow tumors. Cells that are grown in the presence of a protein found in Notch signaling have ten times the ability to self-replicate than cells that grow in the absence of the protein (Al-Hussaini 2011). Notch signaling has receptors that have different purposes. The Notch1 receptor is involved in cell proliferation and resistance to chemotherapy (Yuan 2015b). Notch1 was found to be expressed seven times more in breast cancer cells than in normal cells (Yuan 2015a). Inhibiting Notch1 with a Notch1 antibody caused decreased rates in tumor growth and recurrence (Yuan 2015a). In addition, Notch signaling is largely expressed in disseminated cancer cells that broke away from primary tumors, showing that the pathway has connections to metastasis. If these disseminated cancer cells are identified and treated before they grow metastatic tumors, then metastatic cancer can be prevented. Inhibiting Notch signaling can be an effective treatment for controlling CSCs.
Gamma-secretase inhibitors (GSIs) can inhibit Notch signaling. GSIs inhibit enzymes involved in glycosylation and also cleave receptors. They have been shown to reduce tumor growth in several types of cancer and induce apoptosis in triple-negative breast cancer, which makes up 20% of all breast cancers (Al-Hussaini 2011). Clinical trials are being held to find an effective drug that can reduce Notch signaling by using GSIs.
There are other ways to target cancer stem cells and metastatic tumors. One way is by using mice to observe the effects of different chemotherapy drugs on tumors injected into mice. Lena Werb, a professor at the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), is leading a lab that is studying tumors that were injected into mice. They found that metastatic tumors that were just created had different gene expressions than primary tumors (Weiler 2015). This is an important finding because this explains why metastatic tumors respond differently to chemotherapy than primary tumors do.
Cancer research has been growing rapidly in the past few decades. Treatments such as chemotherapy are much more advanced than they were in the 20th century. However, it is too early to get complacent about cancer research achievements. There are many effective treatments for primary tumors, but much is still unknown about cancer stem cells and metastatic tumors. In the next few decades of cancer research, there should be an increasing number of researchers working to uncover their mysteries so that more cancer-related deaths can be prevented.
Works Cited
Al-Hussaini H, Subramanyam D, Reedijik M, Sridhar SS. Notch Signaling Pathway as a Therapeutic Target in Breast Cancer. 2011 Molecular Cancer Therapy 10; 9-15.
DeSantis C, Ma J, Bryan L, Jemal A. Breast cancer statistics, 2013. 2013 CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians 64; 52-62.
Kai K, Yoshimi A, Kamiya T, Saya H. Breast cancer stem cells. 2009 Breast Cancer 17; 80-85.
O’Shaughnessy J. Extending Survival with Chemotherapy in Metastatic Breast Cancer. 2005 The Oncologist 10; 20-29.
Weiler N. Metastatic Breast Cancer Cells Turn On Stem Cell Genes. 2015 UCSF.
Yuan X, Wu H, Xu H, Xiong H, Chu Q, Yu S, Wu G, Wu K. Notch signaling: An emerging therapeutic target for cancer treatment. 2015b Cancer Letters 369; 20-27.
Yuan X, Zhang M, Wu H, Xu H, Han N, Chu Q, Yu S, Chen Y, Wu K. Expression of Notch1 Correlates with Breast Cancer Progression and Prognosis. 2015a PLoS ONE 10.
Lina Mohamed-Writing Assignment 6
Lina Mohamed Professor Kowach
MHC Writing Assignment 3
Natural Medicine Continued-Acne
One of the most common struggles that teens and young adults go through these days is acne -Acne Vulgaris and Acne Conglobata. The Clinician’s Handbook of Natural Medicine gives many reasons as to why people suffer from acne while providing natural relief and treatments. Sufferers of acne tend to turn to pimple creams, harsh face scrubs, and even pills to adjust hormone levels that may be causing acne. People do not tend to go deep and try to figure out the causes of these acne such as stress, eating habits, makeup products, hair products and tons of other causes. Most acne is caused by certain life style choices, habits and can be easily changed. For example, if one’s diet consists of too much sugar or fatty foods (foods high in trans fats and high-fat goods), this can be a major acne contributor and can be easily avoided. Limiting foods high in iodine and milk products can reduce acne incidences by a drastic amount.
Also another major tip is cleanliness and face care routines that minimize dirt and bacteria on the face, neck, shoulders and other acne prone areas. Acne can be escalated if one has clogged pores and pores that are being exposed to bacteria and other types of dirt. “P.acnes releases lipases, hydrolyzing sebum triglycerides into free fatty acid lipoperoxides, promoting inflammation” (…Handbook of Natural Medicine, 2016). Clean skin is essential to clearer skin and this can be achieved with natural methods rather than man-made products found everywhere in drugstores. For example, daily cleansing with Calendula soap.
Spot treatments for acne are also becoming prevalent in drugstores and beauty stores. However, there are natural alternatives for topical treatment of acne. For example, tea tree oil (5% to 15%) preparations can be extremely helpful to acne and act as skin disinfectants. Tea tree oil is very strong and that is why it must be used only when diluted and used with caution. However, most topical treatments are also harsh on the skin so why not use a natural method instead of a man-made chemically filled treatment.
Certain vitamins can be taken to supplement natural treatments to adjust hormone levels and work from within. Vitamin C is highly effective in improving symptoms of acne. Also, Vitamin E and selenium are great for acne treatment. Vitamin E with selenium regulates retinol levels and normalizes red blood cell glutathione peroxidase, especially in men. Their treatment inhibits lipid peroxide formation and improve acne by targeting internal problems. Vitamin A also “reduces sebum production and hyperkeratinization of sebaceous follicles” (…Handbook of Natural Medicine, 2016). All of these suggested treatments and supplements require time to work. Therefore, one must be patient when treating acne especially when trying to cure the roots of the problem and not just exterior effects. Most over the counter acne products simply try to solve exterior acne and will work for a while then stop working. Also, our bodies tend to get so used to these man-made products which is not favorable. To conclude, natural alternatives fix the whole problem and not just certain parts.
References:
–Multivalent Carbohydrate-Lectin Interactions. Molecules,2016. The Traditional Medicine and Modern Medicine from Natural Products
Haidan Yuan 1,2, Qianqian Ma 1, Li Ye 1 and Guangchun Piao 1,2,*
1-College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China
2-Key Laboratory of Natural Resources of Changbai Mountain and Functional Molecules, Ministry of Education, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China
Retreived from Google Scholars: http://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/21/5/559
–The Clinician’s Handbook of Natural Medicine
By Joseph E. Pizzorno Jr., Michael T. Murray, Herb Joiner-Bey. 2016 by Elsevier. Third Edition.
Retrieved from Google scholars: https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=LYwtDAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=doctors+on+natural+medicine&ots=ADrvEz9UGN&sig=Lg6t2XZV7qEp6P0l4dYSnSDAJxs#v=onepage&q=doctors%20on%20natural%20medicine&f=false
-(NCCIH, 2008). Use of Complementary and Alternative Medicine in the United States. National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved from:
https://nccih.nih.gov/research/statistics/2007/camsurvey_fs1.htm
-(2011) Prescription Painkiller Overdoses in the US. CDC. Retreived from:
http://www.cdc.gov/vitalsigns/painkilleroverdoses/
-Image retrieved from : http://purelyprimalskincare.com/?hop=galus
-Alternative Medicine: The Definitive Guide (2nd Edition)– June 6, 2002 Retrieved from Google Scholars: https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=OyrhatOdk9gC&oi=fnd&pg=PA270&dq=natural+alternatives+to+painkillers&ots=68fhOAE58y&sig=-malo2jqTO8ylS5N_CVlAN-PFSo#v=onepage&q=natural%20alternatives%20to%20painkillers&f=false
Open Dumpsites’s Adverse Effects to Human and Environment
Medical waste is one of the most harmful wastes being disposed and treated on landfills (Diaz and Savage, 2003). It is broadly defined as liquid or solid wastes generated from the diagnosis, treatment, and immunization of human beings and animals (Akter, 1999). Wastes from this category can have adverse effects on human health and a negative impact on natural environment and ecosystems (Akter, 2000). Hence, a proper medical waste management system should be provided immediately in both developing and developed countries to decrease the occurrence of waste related disease and adverse effects on ecosystems and the environment.
Many developing countries overlooked the importance of safe medical waste handling. According to Alter’s study, most governments have no clear guidance systems to ensure the proper disposal and segregation of medical wastes. As most wastes are collected and dumped in a common place, where it was located on roadsides, dust bins, and even resold and poured down main sewer drains (Akter, 1999). In addition, some wastes are also disposed in open fields, rivers, lakes, and ditches. This will result in potential risks of an adverse change in the natural environment. One important fact is that the majority of the people surveyed does not know what are considered as medical wastes and moreover, most of them does not have any existing idea of the damage they can cause. Due to the constant careless mishandling and disposal of these wastes, contaminants often come in contact with wild animals and the natural environment. These contaminants change the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the environment, in which could change the Earth’s temperature, toxicity in soil, and even other characteristics such as the discharge of radioactive substances (Akter, 1999). Disposed liquid medical wastes could also seep into groundwater, surface water, and also adversely affect the air quality with odors and toxins. And because of the close contact between these wastes and humans, medical wastes can also have an adverse effect on the health of humans and the wildlife.
A review done in 1999 estimated that 4 out of the 5.2 million people that died each year in Bangladesh from waste-related diseases were children (Akter, 1999). Clinical and non-clinical wastes were found in dumpsites, which poses an extremely harmful threat to ecosystems and as well as human communities. Pathogens and hazardous materials are capable of causing diseases to human and animals both directly or indirectly by contaminating soil, air, surface water, and groundwater. Wastes contain certain toxic substances that would lead to an infection when they have contact with human or living animals, and also cause air pollutant and water pollution, in which we consume on a regular basis (Akter, 1999). According to the science research study by Glenn Sia Su, she claims that the families who lived around open dumpsites in Payatas, Philippines were affected by waterborne illness due to the improper way of landfill procedures that led to water pollution. Toxic substances that caused waterborne illness from the open dumpsites seeped into the grounds and through the drinking wells in Payatas. The impact of open dumpsites was mostly influencing the uneducated people because of their unhygienic living styles which led to their higher risk of getting waterborne diseases, particularly diarrhea (Su, 2005).
Raman and Sathiya Narayanan from VHNSN College also examined the soil and water quality near open dumpsites in Chennai, India. The pH, temperature, electric conductivity, amount of heavy metal and other physical or chemical properties were tested from the samples. It was found that the groundwater quality was highly contaminated and it was unacceptable by the Indian Drinking Water Quality standard (Raman and Sathiya Narayanan, 2008). As recent as many of these kinds of research were conducted in the 2000s, developing countries are still using open dumpsites as their medical waste disposal method. The results all supported that dumpsites can have very negative impacts on their nearby families and can cause toxic contamination that leads to diseases.
Figure 1. Left is the Pallavarm landfill site. The right is Joy Nagar nearer to Pallvaram landfill site. Figure taken from Raman and Sathiya Narayanan, 2008.
In conclusion, these studies of various countries provide us important information to convince us to adopt a safer and cleaner way to dispose medical wastes. One important fact is the lack of awareness of individuals about medical wastes. Individuals surveyed were asked questions to distinguish common wastes and medical wastes, in which many failed to accomplish. They were also clueless about their environmental and health impacts. Wastes can be disposed carelessly on road sides, dust bins, open fields and even enter our air and water systems. As a result, this can cause an extremely harmful effect to our health by exposing us to illnesses and injuries, such as HIV, cancer, infections, and other related diseases. In addition, medical waste could also have an adverse effect on the environment. The waste that is leaked into the water or released into the air can potentially cause changes that have a negative impact on the chemical, physical, and/or biological properties of the environment. Which in turn, can cause more health issues and problems for humans living close to these landfill locations. Therefore, it is important for countries and its governments to implement a clear guide on how to properly distinguish and safely dispose of medical wastes.
Work Cited
Ramen, N., and Sathiya Narayanan, D. (2008). Impact of Solid Waste Effect On Ground Water and Soil Quality Nearer to Pallavaram Solid Waste Landfill Site in Chennai. Rasayan J. Chem. Vol. 1, No 4.
Full Body Scanners: New detection technologies
Full body scanners are now the norm at many US airports. Working alongside metal detectors and baggage scanners, the giant machines help make air travel safer and more efficient.
Unlike traditional metal detectors where the machines only detect metal objects such as guns and knives, these full body scanners are able to detect anything that could be a potential threat. These machines are able to detect bombs made from organic matter and illegal drugs that passengers may be carrying (Mahesh).
The full body scanners use two main systems, backscatter x-ray technology and millimeter wave detection. Both of these systems use radiation to penetrate clothing to get an image of the body. In a baggage x-ray system, the device works like that of a medical x-ray. Strong radiation is given off by the machine that is connected to a screen which the agent then inspects. Backscatter x-rays however, use far less radiation and only measure the x-rays that are bounced back from your body or objects on the person (Mehta and Smith-Bendelman). Concealed items such as liquid bombs, ceramic knives or drugs would go undetected a typical metal detector but would show up in a backscatter machine. Millimeter wave detection works on a similar principle with rays transmitted out to your body and bounced back. The machine then makes a radar image of the body without the scary x-ray technology (Moulder).
Backscatter technology exposes the passenger to very minimal amounts of radiation. In comparison, a passenger would have to pass through the backscatter system 1000 to 2000 times before experiencing the same exposure as a chest x-ray. The TSA agents operating the machines face about 100 uSv of radiation per year which is far less than the safe health limit of 50,000 uSv per year (Zanetti-Fregonara).
Millimeter wave detection, on the other hand does not expose passengers to ionizing radiation but uses a form of electromagnetic radiation called millimeter waves. These waves lie in the spectral region between radio waves and infrared to obtain images. These advanced scanners beam low powered millimeter waves over the surface of the body using two rotating antennas. The energy reflected back from the machine is analyzed to create body images and located any questionable items (Hindie).
This new technology is considered as a more efficient security measure where they are being more commonly used in US airports. They are able to quickly view a passenger’s person with barely any harmful effects.
Figure 1: Backscatter image of passenger at an airport screening
Figure 2: Shows the comparison of backscatter radiation and millimeter wave detection to common radiation exposure
References
Mahesh, 2010 M. Mahesh Use of full body scanners at airports British Medical Journal (2010), p. 340 http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.c993 c993
Mehta and Smith-Bindman, 2011 P. Mehta, R. Smith-Bindman Airport full-body screening: what is the risk? Archives of Internal Medicine, 171 (12) (2011), pp. 1112–1115 http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinternmed.2011.105
Moulder, 2012 J.E. Moulder Risks of exposure to ionizing and millimeter-wave radiation from airport whole-body scanners
Radiation Research, 177 (6) (2012), pp. 723–726
Zanotti-Fregonara Zanotti-Fregonara Radiation risk from airport X-ray backscatter scanners: should we fear the microsievert?
E. Hindie Journal of Radiology, 261 (1) (2011), pp. 330–331 http://dx.doi.org/10.1148/radiol.11110983 author reply 331–332
Cannabis Use and its Relation to Psychological Disorders including Anxiety and Depression
Cannabis has become a very popular drug world wide, and has even been legalized in some countries. Avid cannabis users love the benefits that cannabis can provide, and medical professionals even prescribe it to patients as a natural pain remedy. While cannabis is widely known to calm people down and relieve physical pain, it has been shown to complicate and worsen symptoms in patients with mental disorders including anxiety and depression.
A study published in the Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry followed 3,239 Australian young adults from birth to age 21 and data on their anxiety and depression and cannabis use were collected over time. The study found that “those who started using cannabis before age 15 years and used it frequently at 21 years were more likely to report symptoms of AD in early adulthood (odds ratio 3.4; 95% CI 1.9-6.1)” (Hayatbakhsh et al., 2007). Furthermore, a study published in the BMJ (British Medical Journal) followed 1,601 students ages 14-15 for seven years to determine if cannabis use during their adolescence would lead to higher rates of anxiety and depression later on in life. The study found that “Daily use in young women was associated with an over fivefold increase in the odds of reporting a state of depression and anxiety after adjustment for intercurrent use of other substances (odds ratio 5.6, 95% confidence interval 2.6 to 12). Weekly or more frequent cannabis use in teenagers predicted an approximately twofold increase in risk for later depression and anxiety (1.9, 1.1 to 3.3) after adjustment for potential baseline confounders” (Patton et al., 2002). Therefore, it is clear that young people who use cannabis may have a greater chance of having anxiety or depression in their lives.
A study published in the Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology consisted of analyzing data from the Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being that involved cannabis use and anxiety and depression rates. The researchers found that “Among those with DSM-IV cannabis dependence, 14% met criteria for an affective disorder, compared to 6% of non-users; while 17% met criteria for an anxiety disorder, compared to 5% of non-users” (Degenhardt et al., 2001). Moreover, a study published in the Journal of Psychiatric Research found that after following participants of the Oregon Adolescent Depression Project, “SAD [social anxiety disorder] at study entry was associated with 6.5 greater odds of cannabis dependence… at follow-up after controlling for relevant variables (e.g., gender, depression, conduct disorder)” (Buckner et al., 2008).
Lastly, a study published in the Frontiers in Psychiatry Journal conducted research to determine a link between cannabis use and psychiatric illnesses. As seen in the figure below, researchers found that the risk of psychiatric illness later in life is heightened when cannabis is used during adolescence (Chadwick et al., 2013).
Cannabis use during adolescence vs. risk of psychiatric illnesses (green line = cannabis-exposed, gray line = unexposed)
The amount of people who support the legalization of cannabis seems to increase every day, and supporters claim that cannabis can work wonders as a pain remedy and an all-around calming drug. However, there is a large amount of evidence that shows that cannabis can work adversely for people who struggle with psychological disorders including anxiety and depression.
Works Cited
Buckner JD, Schmidt NB, Lang AR, et al. Specificity of social anxiety disorder as a risk factor for alcohol and cannabis dependence. Journal of Psychiatric Research. Vol 42, p 230-239. 2008.
Chadwick B, Miller ML, Hurd YL. Cannabis use during adolescent development: susceptibility to psychiatric illnesses. Frontiers in Psychiatry. Vol 4, p 32-39. 2013.
Degenhardt L, Hall W, Lynskey M. The relationship between cannabis use, depression and anxiety among Australian adults: findings from the National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. Vol 36, p 219-227. 2001.
Hayatbakhsh MR, Najman JM, Jamrozik K, et al. Cannabis and Anxiety and Depression in Young Adults: A Large Prospective Study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. Vol 46, p 408-417. 2007.
Patton GC, Coffey C, Carlin JB, et al. Cannabis use and mental health in young people: cohort study. The British Medical Journal. Vol 325, p 1195-1198. 2002.
Causes of Traffic Accidents: Bad Driving Habits Contribute to Life-Threatening Distractions
Numerous different factors contribute to increased risks of traffic accidents and fatalities; however, the most important component is the irresponsibility of drivers. After all, the drivers’ fates are in their own hands, since, in most cases, the reasons behind one’s arrival at a “dead end” are hidden behind one’s hazardous driving habits.
It is important to recognize that unsafe driving habits contribute to distractions (Figure 1), since, according to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), about 65% of near crashes and 80% of all crashes occur due to distracted minds (Professional Safety, 2005). The first type of driver distraction is called “physical,” and it is the one most people are aware of (Professional Safety, 2013). The first element of this type is a simple human necessity – eating. Very often people would eat while driving on the highway, steering with only one hand and sharing their attention between the road and the food. This significantly increases the reaction time and impairs the ability to properly change lanes. Furthermore, when a spill occurs, the driver’s focus is rapidly shifted towards cleaning that expensive shirt, which is creating a risk of a vehicle crash and suggesting a simple alternative – spend 10 minutes eating before getting in the car.
Figure 1: Example of Driving Distractions
Source: American Automobile Association
Another important subpart of the physical factor is children. Screaming toddlers and children fighting in the back seat can distract the driver no matter how focused he/she is on the road. The best way to avoid this problem is to train children to be quiet and occupy their minds with pre-planned “in-car” activities (Sagberg et al., 2015).
Last but not least, the use of cell phones while driving contributes to a very high level of distraction. Unfortunately, the ability to easily communicate through the cellular network and many other technological innovations bring with them new reasons for distraction. Studies have shown that a driver talking on a cell phone has the same chance of crashing as a driver with a blood alcohol concentration of 0.08%, which is the legal limit in the United States (Sagberg et al., 2015). It is interesting that the majority of opponents of drunk driving use their cell phones while driving. Additionally, hands-free devices do not make driving any safer, since it is the conversation itself that is causing the distraction. Also, studies have shown that texting while driving increases the risk of a crash by 60 times, since, in this case, the driver’s focus is completely absorbed by the content of the message (Moser, 2011) (see Figure 2 below); therefore, texting and driving can never be justified.
Figure 2: Cell Phone Distracted Driving – Breakdown
Source: California Traffic Safety Institute
The second type of driver distraction is called “mental.” Even though the initial stage of this type of distraction is “invisible” and can’t be identified with a naked eye, it doesn’t mean that mental distraction is trivial. Very often people start thinking about their personal issues and get lost in their thoughts, which leads to daydreaming. The first source of mental distraction is road rage – reckless driving is the way a lot of drivers react to unsafe actions of other drivers, which is putting both parties at risk (Moser, 2011). Emotion control is a crucial skill required to maintain safety in this case, since desire for revenge is never worth the risk of a crash. Unfortunately, reckless driving appears to be a part of the routine for some people (Figure 3), which means that it is hard to bring them under control, and only fines or tragic events can change their unsafe ways, since crashes for them is just a matter of time.
Figure 3: Expression of Road Rage and Aggression by Drivers
Source: American Automobile Association
The next piece of the “mental” cloud is drunk driving. The reaction time of a healthy adult is about ¾ of a second; however, one drink doubles that amount, which emphasizes how dangerous it is to drive after drinking to the point of intoxication (Rivara et al., 2007). Every single year about 18,000 people die because of drunk driving in the United States (Moser, 2011). NHTSA states that 3 of every 10 Americans will be involved in an alcohol-related crash in their lives (17). Moreover, the recidivism rate is 33%, which is so high that it makes drunk driving a habit for a lot of drivers (Rivara et al., 2007). That group of people believes in the existence of “experienced” drinkers, thinking that the effect of alcohol on those drinkers is reduced due to “immunity.” The best way to prevent alcohol-related crashes from occurring is to check potential drivers for previous DUI or DWI convictions and grant driving privileges based on the results of screening, since prior convictions act as an important factor given the recidivism rate.
Loss of concentration when rushing or any aggressive behavior can lead to red-light violations. This type of violation is extremely dangerous, since the majority of intersection crashes happen at 45-degree angles, and if the door is hit where a person is seated, then the body absorbs a direct transfer of energy even with advanced airbags (Professional Safety, 2005). In order to avoid “pushing” red signals all the time, drivers should be constantly scanning the intersection areas they are approaching to figure out how much time they have before the light turns red.
Most of the drivers set allowed speed limits within their minds based on where they are driving in order to drive within that limit. Nevertheless, there are drivers without this feeling of limit, which leads to a habit of speeding. Whether the driver is always running late or simply feels comfortable speeding, every additional 10 miles per hour to the speed double the forces of impact in case of a collision (Professional Safety, 2013). An increase in speed decreases and can even eliminate the driver’s ability to react and avoid an accident. In order to prevent drivers from speeding, it is critical to check motor vehicle records and take appropriate actions if aggressive driving pattern is detected. Actions can include different sanctions or training.
Fatigue appears to be the next unit among “mental distractors.” In the modern world people tend to not leave enough time in their schedules for sleeping and resting. Slapping the face and turning up the music help the driver for only a short period of time if they do. According to the National Sleep Foundation (NSF), about 1.9 million drivers have fatigue-related accidents every year (Radun, 2006). 54% of the drivers surveyed by NSF have driven while fatigued in 2011 (Radun, 2006). The best way to avoid fatigue-related accidents is to not drive without enough sleep and plan in advance to rest before the drive. For long trips, it is important to stop and rest every two hours, even if the driver had enough sleep, since stretching, washing the face, and even drinking a beverage can energize and refresh the driver.
People have habits related to every single activity in their lives, and driving is not an exception. The way we drive affects us and other people, so we should be constantly working on removing bad habits through the process of four Rs: recognition, replacement, repetition, and retention. We have to recognize that we have bad habits, replace them with good ones, and then keep on going through the process until only the good habits are retained. We have to constantly fight the distractions while driving, and the methods can be as unusual as verbalizing what we observe while driving to stay focused on the road. Our choices matter, and we have to remember that not a lot of things can change our lives as fast as a car accident.
Works Cited (MLA Format)
Moser, Philip. “Managing Unsafe Drivers & Their Unsafe Habits.” Best Practices 56.5 (2011): 16-18.
Professional Safety. “Cintas Lists the Seven Most Hazardous Driving Habits.” Professional Safety 58.4 (2013): 30.
Professional Safety. “Drivers Urged to Follow Safe Driving Tips in Highway Work Zones.” Professional Safety 50.6 (2005): 64.
Radun, Igor, and Jenni Radun. “Seasonal Variation of Falling Asleep While Driving: An Examination of Fatal Road Accidents.” Chronobiology International: The Journal of Biological & Medical Rhythm Research 23.5 (2006): 1053-1064.
Rivara, Frederick, Annemarie Relyea-Chew, Wang Jin, Suzefte Riley, Deanne Boisvert, and Tony Gomez. “Drinking Behaviors in Young Adults: The Potential Role of Designated Driver and Safe Ride Home Programs.” Injury Prevention 13.3 (2007): 168-172.
Sagberg, Fridulv, Francesco Bianchi Piccinini, and Johan Engström. “A Review of Research on Driving Styles and Road Safety.” Driving Styles and Road Safety 57.7 (2015): 1248-1275.
African Sleeping Sickness: What is it and What is Being Done To Stop it?
African Trypanosomiasis, or African Sleeping Sickness, is a vector borne parasitic disease. The disease is transmitted by an infected Tsetse fly. As the infected fly takes a blood meal from its mammalian host, parasites enter the host through the lymphatic system and into the bloodstream. Once inside the bloodstream, the parasite turns into trypomastigotes, which are then carried throughout the rest of the body and reach other vital bodily fluids. During this whole process, the trypomastigotes are continuously multiplying by binary fission. The whole life cycle of the tsetse fly can be seen in figure 1 (CDC, 2015).
Once infected, there are two stages that a person goes through with the disease. Stage 1 (haemolymphatic stage) is when non-specific symptoms such as headaches and fevers begin to present themselves. During this stage, the disease is very easy to treat, but very difficult to diagnose so many cases go undiagnosed, allowing for the parasite to invade the person’s central nervous system, which leads to stage 2. In stage 2 (neurological phase), the parasite has reached the central nervous system of its host. During this stage, specific symptoms start to appear including convulsions, confusion, violent behavior, and the most notable symptom- inability to sleep at night and extreme sleepiness during the day (Doctors Without Borders, 2015).
There are 36 African countries consider endemic for sleeping sickness, but of these 36, 7 countries are responsible for 97% of all reported cases. This disease is most present in very poor, rural countries where there is difficulty to diagnose the disease, political instability, and lack of proper health surveillance. All of these factors make diagnosing and treating the disease more difficult, but they also leave uncertainty of the accurate number of cases prevalent each year (DNDI, 2012). The Democratic Republic of Congo has the highest rate of infection, reporting 1000 new cases each year and accounting for roughly 85% of all cases (WHO, 2016). The distribution of the disease can be seen in figure 2.
Currently, the WHO has noted that elimination of the disease is feasible, and they have even set a target date for elimination as the year 2030. To make this possible, surveillance of the disease is going to need to increase in many afflicted countries. Many of the health care facilities and resources in the endemic countries are weak and poorly staffed. Increased support and external assistance is necessary to ensure the surveillance of the disease and early diagnosis. Additionally, environmental changes can affect the disease. Given the changing climate and the massive population growth in Africa, some areas may be affected worse than before, or areas that were endemic may have the relief of a smaller fly population. Drought and increased temperatures can drive flies away. Although this can be good for some countries, other countries that were not endemic may notice an increase in the disease. All of this is dependent upon population growth and climate change, so constant surveillance of those issues and predictions for the future will need to occur to ensure control over the disease (Franco et al., 2014).
Fig 1: life cycle of the tsetse fly
Fig 2: distribution of the disease throughout Africa
Works Cited:
“Trypanosomiasis, Human African (sleeping Sickness).” World Health Organization. World Health Organization, Feb. 2016. Web. 06 Nov. 2016.
“Biology.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 16 Mar. 2015. Web. 06 Nov. 2016.
“Sleeping Sickness.” MSF USA. N.p., 25 Mar. 2016. Web. 06 Nov. 2016.
“About Sleeping Sickness.” DNDi. N.p., 2012. Web. 06 Nov. 2016.
Franco, Jose R., Pere P. Simarro, Abdoulaye Diarra, and Jean G. Jannin. “Epidemiology of Human African Trypanosomiasis.” Clinical Epidemiology. Dove Medical Press, 6 Aug. 2014. Web. 06 Nov. 2016.
