Notch Signaling: Developmental Regulation
As discussed before, Notch signaling is a form of cell communication that is a direct cell-to-cell interaction. It is the start of a signaling pathway in which from the outer membrane of a cell, a messenger is sent from one cell to the other’s nucleus area so that it can regulate a certain gene expression.
Notch signaling is a huge step in cell evolution. It became major component of our cell development to allow complex cell communication. It allowed neighboring cells to respond to both internal and external cues for development of the cells (Artavanis-Tsakonas, 1999). This adaptation would help cells survive in different situations and environments. It can be used in a defensive matter, but also as a developmental matter. As an organism develops into maturity, it has a stash of cells ready to become certain specialized cells. Notch signaling helps regulate the production of these specialized cells so the organism doesn’t have more than it needs (Lai, 2004). Without notch signaling, the organism never develops to maturity, but if it produces all the specialized cells at once, it loses the ability to express those cells later in its life. Notch signaling keeps a delicate balance for the organism to mature and function.
(A) showcases the goal for notch signaling, so that not all the cells are expressed at once. (B) shows when there is no notch at all, and when it signals to much. (D) (E) and (F) show what happens when notch is defective. (C) is a wild type organism.
This delicate balance is kept through a multiple different regulations of notch signaling. It can be regulated through methods like protein ligases interfering with endocytosis of signals, and the receptors being glycosylated, thus changing its ability to receive signals (Schweisguth, 2004). Carbohydrates are attached to the receptors, causing their shape to change. This limits its cell interaction on the outer membrane level. When this regulation goes awry, it can have lethal repercussions. It has been found that notch signaling can actually help tumors form and grow (Leong, 2006). When functioning, the notch signaling can help prevent growth by initiating apoptosis of the deadly cell.
Sources
Artavanis-Tsakonas, S. “Notch Signaling: Cell Fate Control and Signal Integration in Development.” Science 284.5415 (1999): 770-76.
Lai, E. C. “Notch Signaling: Control of Cell Communication and Cell Fate.” Development131.5 (2004): 965-73.
Schweisguth, François. “Regulation of Notch Signaling Activity.” Current Biology 14.3 (2004)
Leong, K. G. “Recent Insights into the Role of Notch Signaling in Tumorigenesis.” Blood107.6 (2006): 2223-233.
Trusted Traveler Programs
Current aviation security procedures screen all passengers uniformly. Changing the amount of screening some individuals receive has the potential to relieve the burden of frequent travelers while making the screening process more efficient. Trusted traveler programs exist so that some travelers pre identified as “low risk” undergo expedited screening (Caulkins). This allows security resources to be shifted from low risk passenger to the unknown risk population. However, fears arise that terrorists may exploit these programs to harm the community around us.
Trusted traveler programs are one of the many attempts the United States Customs and Border Protection is using to make the international arrivals process faster and more convenient for travelers (Chow, Dreyer). They simplify traveling by eliminating paper forms, expanding the use of Automated Passport Control kiosks, and incorporating mobile apps for travelers. Mobile Passport Control allows travelers to fill out customs declaration forms and biographic information before the passenger even lands (Drury, Ghylin).
NEXUS is a program offered by both the United States and Canadian Border Protection agencies that allows registered users accelerated clearance when entering the US or Canada. The SENTRI program is also similar to the NEXUS program except it offers expedited clearance within the southern US land port of entries and Mexico. FAST is another program that caters to low risk truck shipments between the US from Canada and Mexico (Perisco, Todd).
All of these programs require applicants to undergo an intensive background check with government databases and intelligence as well as in person interview with a customs officer.
These new programs are growing in popularity with over 350,000 people now belonging to NEXUS and are receiving anywhere from 10,000 to 12,000 applicants a month. The SENTRI program is also very successful with over 200,000 people enrolled. By pre screening travelers beforehand, these programs are able to reduce wait times for travelers anywhere from 10 minutes to 2 hours (Richardson, Cave).
Figure 1: Comparison of Trusted Traveler Programs offered to US citizens.
Figure 2: Graph of Automated Kiosks Usage in US Airports
References:
Caulkins JP (2004) CAPPS II: A risky choice concerning an untested risk detection
technology. Risk Anal 24(4):921–924
Chow J, Chiesa J, Dreyer P, Eisman M, Karasik TW, Kvitky J, Lingel S, Ochmanek
D, Shirley C (2005) Protecting commercial aviation against the shoulder-fired missile threat. RAND Corporation, Santa Monica
Drury CG, Ghylin KM, Holness K (2006) Error analysis and threat magnitude for
carry-on bag inspection. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 56th Annual Meeting. 1189–1193
Persico N, Todd PE (2005) Passenger profiling, imperfect screening, and airport
security. Am Econ Rev 95(2):127–131
Richardson DW, Cave SB, La Grange L (2007) Prediction of police officer
performance among New Mexico State Police as assessed by the personality assessment inventory. J Police Crim Psych 22:84–90
The Sistine Chapel Restoration Controversy and Its Implications in the Field of Art Conservation
Ethical Controversies
Art conservation is a vital field in the preservation of our cultural heritage, and this importance does not come without its fair share of controversy. Conservators and restorers alike must deal with many ethical dilemmas when approaching the issue of whether to clean and restore a work of art, or let it degrade naturally. After all, most artists make their work without the deliberate intention of expecting it to last for centuries after their passing, and like most things in life, artwork is temporary and subject to degradation. However, these artistic intentions are never analyzed as closely as they should: when it comes to debate regarding art conservation, it usually concerns not if art should be conserved, but how. One of the most famous restoration controversies was that of Michelangelo’s frescoes on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, which were completed in the early 16th century. A fresco is a type of painting created on fresh plaster using water-based pigments, typical for mural paintings on large walls. In the essence of the fresco, the colors set in with the plaster as both dry creating a beautiful effect, but it also complicates restoration efforts due to the nature of plaster.
Restoration Process
For the restoration process, restorers worked to fill in cracks made in the plaster, as well as clean the surface in a non-harmful way. Cleaning began in 1980, after the Vatican Conservation Laboratory discovered that deteriorating animal glue, previously attached by restorers from the late 1500s, were detaching pigments from the plaster (Academy of Arts and Sciences). This hot animal glue had also been applied again in the 1700s in order to heighten colors that had been previously obscured by dust and smoke from candles, oil lamps, and braziers frequently used in the chapel for hundreds of years. Not only were such glue materials detaching pigments, they had also lost their transparency and darkened into a brown color, further masking Michelangelo’s original painting.
To begin cleaning, restorers used a mixture of ammonium bi-carbonate, sodium bi-carbonate, and antibacterial antifungal agent combined with carboxymethylcellulose and distilled water, which had been extensively tested by the Vatican Conservation Laboratory and used successfully on other mural paintings in Europe (Academy of Arts and Sciences). The fresco was then divided into sections of approximately 30 square centimeters, to be cleaned individually and carefully monitored. Each designated section was dusted and washed with distilled water before the cleaning mixture was applied with either a cotton or cellulose putty. After 30 minutes, the mixture was removed, and the same process would be repeated the next day.
Aside from the cleaning process, restorers had to remove overpaint done by previous restorers and fill in cracks made in the plaster (Elam). Because of the importance of the paintings and the controversy surrounding the restoration work, it was emphasized that “no color [was] added to the original frescoes, no reconstructive painting [was] done, and no color brightener [was] used” (Academy of Arts and Sciences).
Results and Implications for Future Restorations
The results of the cleaning process revealed vibrant colors Michelangelo had originally used, completely changing what art historians had previously thought about his painting habits. Michelangelo was widely known for his muted colors in the beautiful proportions and renderings of his paintings, which historians had attributed to his work as a sculptor (Academy of Arts and Sciences). If it had not been for the restoration process, this important information about Michelangelo’s painting habits would not have been revealed. What was thought to be his signature “somber color palette” was actually the opposite, and colors used were quite typical of other mural painters from his time (Kimmelmann). Even with all the controversy that comes with art conservation, its results unveil discoveries into the connecting fields of art history and science, and altogether, preserve the historical documents that are great works of art.
Details of Michelangelo’s frescoes on the Sistine Chapel ceiling, taken during the restoration process. Marks and cracks in plaster are very clear, which would later be restored.
Works Cited
“Art Restoration: The Myth and the Reality | ConservArt.” ConservArt. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Nov. 2016.
“A View from the ‘Ponte’.” The Burlington Magazine, vol. 129, no. 1016, 1987, pp. 707–708. www.jstor.org/stable/883211.
Elam, Caroline. “Michelangelo and the Sistine Chapel. Rome, Vatican.” The Burlington Magazine, vol. 132, no. 1047, 1990, pp. 434–437. www.jstor.org/stable/884339.
Kimmelmann, Michael. “Review/Art; After a Much-Debated Cleaning, A Richly Hued Sistine Emerges.” The New York Times. The New York Times, 14 May 1990. Web. 29 Nov. 2016.
“Saturday Afternoons at the Academy.” Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. 43, no. 8, 1990, pp. 7–11. www.jstor.org/stable/3824775.
Finding the mutations that cause genetic disorders by studying genes and their modes of inheritance
How are mutations for genetic disorders found? There are long and complicated processes to identify the cause of genetic disorders. Three processes discussed in this paper are identifying mutation types, studying the mode of inheritance of genes, and describing universal phenotypic symptoms of genetic disorders for diagnosis.
Figure 1- Mutations that cause Kabuki Syndrome
Source: Hannibal, MC, et al. Am J Med Genet A. 2011
Not all mutations are alike. A type of mutation called silence mutation codes for the same protein as the normal gene sequence would code for. There would be no consequences for the individual. However, many severe genetic disorders are caused by Loss of Function (LoF) variants (Lyon 2012). LoF variants interfere with protein function by not coding for a protein or decreasing the function of a protein (Lyon 2012). They include nonsense mutations, in which one base is replaced with another, forming a stop codon so a protein does not get built completely. The incomplete protein may not function at all or only partly function. LoF variants also include insertions and deletions, in which a base is inserted or deleted, causing the wrong amino acids to form, and consequently, the wrong or nonfunctional proteins (Lyon 2012). Kabuki syndrome is a genetic disorder caused by several nonsense mutations, as shown in Figure 1 (Hannibal 2011). However, other types of mutations cause genetic disorders too. For example, a missense mutation, in which one base is replaced with another so a different amino acid is used, is the cause of Ogden syndrome (Lyon 2012). Identifying the type of mutation is crucial to understanding how the mutation occurred.
The mode of inheritance of genes is usually studied by using Mendel’s principles of dominance and recessive genes. In fact, many genetic disorders can be classified using these terms (Lyon 2012). However, not all genes have clear dominance or recessive traits; some genes are neither in complex diseases (Lyon 2012). Family histories of diseases are useful to study to understand how these diseases are inherited and where a mutation happened. Studying families is especially useful to study rare diseases or new mutations that have not been affected by natural selection yet (Lyon 2012).
To diagnose a genetic disorder, a patient must exhibit phenotypic symptoms related to the disorder. However, it is difficult to accurately know phenotypic symptoms because genes are expressed differently in individuals (Lyon 2012). Administering tests to study genomic information and standardizing vocabulary used to describe symptoms can allow doctors and physicians to compare symptoms and diagnose with more certainty. It is crucial to develop standardized medical terms for symptoms so there are lots of efforts being made, such as projects like the Unified Medical Language System (Pathak 2011). The Human Phenotype Ontology serves to standardize abnormal symptoms (Robinson 2008). Efforts for diagnosing psychiatric disorders are also being made. Research Domain Criteria proposed using neurobiological measures and observable behavior dimensions to classify psychopathology (Lyon 2012).
Causes of some genetic disorders have been identified. However, some of them may be “false positives” (Lyon 2012). Some of the causes of genetic disorders may not actually be causes although they are apparent in the genes of some patients. False positives include genes that are found in low frequencies in healthy populations (Lyon 2012). Some recorded causes of sporadic dilated cardiomyopathy were found to be false positives when the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute-Exome Sequencing Project calculated their allele frequencies (Norton 2012).
Researchers and doctors need to keep in mind that there some genes that seem likely to be the causes of genetic disorders may in reality not be.
Learning about genes, how they are inherited, and the symptoms that are caused by mutations are crucial in figuring out what the causes of genetic disorders are.
Works Cited
Hannibal MC, et al: Spectrum of MLL2 (ALR) mutations in 110 cases of Kabuki syndrome. Am J Med Genet A. 2011, 155A: 1511-1516.
Lyon GJ, Wang K: Identifying disease mutations in genomic medicine settings: current challenges and how to accelerate progress. Genome Medicine. 2012, 4: 58. 10.1186/gm359.
Norton N, Robertson PD, Rieder MJ, Zuchner S, Rampersaud E, Martin E, Li D, Nickerson DA, Hershberger RE: Evaluating pathogenicity of rare variants from dilated cardiomyopathy in the exome era. Circ Cardiovasc Genet. 2012, 5: 167-174. 10.1161/CIRCGENETICS.111.961805.
Pathak J, Wang J, Kashyap S, Basford M, Li R, Masys DR, Chute CG: Mapping clinical phenotype data elements to standardized metadata repositories and controlled terminologies: the eMERGE Network experience. J Am Med Inform Assoc. 2011, 18: 376-386. 10.1136/amiajnl-2010-000061.
Robinson PN, Kohler S, Bauer S, Seelow D, Horn D, Mundlos S: The Human Phenotype Ontology: a tool for annotating and analyzing human hereditary disease. Am J Hum Genet. 2008, 83: 610-615. 10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.09.017.
Peer Pressure: Teenagers Behind the Wheel
The majority of children start walking by the time they are 14 or 15 months old. Of course, there are exceptions to the general rule, since some children don’t walk until they are 17 months old. Just like with walking, it takes time for a human being to become mature enough for practicing a certain activity. It has been accepted in the United States that the best minimum drinking age is 21. However, the minimum age for driving in most of the states is 16, which means that teenagers constitute to a big percentage of drivers in the United States (Ferguson et al., 2007). Unfortunately, teens have little resistance to and are extremely vulnerable to one of the worst on-the-road enemies of youthful drivers – peer pressure. Furthermore, that is one of the main reasons why, according to the NHTSA, motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of death for teenagers aged between 15 and 20 (Frisman, 2010).
According to the analysis of numerous federal accident statistics, it was found that more than half (about 55%) of fatal crashes involving 16 to 17-year-old drivers with no adults in the car occurred with a passenger younger than age 20 (Moller et al., 2014). Moreover, teenage drivers with two or more passengers, especially male passengers, are at a higher risk of fatal crashes, since driving with peers is an extremely desirable activity that has the potential to afford the drivers status, peer approval, and independence. A report from a journal entitled “Accident Analysis and Prevention” summarizes the psychology behind the teens’ desire to show off in front of their peers: “Overall, 16-year-old drivers, compared with drivers of other ages, were most likely to have been accompanied by one or more passengers at the time of their fatal crash involvement… The results of this study indicate that the risk of being involved in a fatal crash is much higher for teenage drivers when passengers are present in the vehicle as compared with driving alone, particularly when the passengers are other teenagers and particularly when more than one teenage passenger is present (Moller et al., 2014).”
Passengers can contribute to different types of distractions, and about 38.4% of 2,144 California high school seniors surveyed in 2006 reported they had been distracted in one way or another by their passengers (Shope, 2006). Specifically, the following distractions were reported: 45% said their passengers were yelling and being loud, 22% said passengers were “fooling around,” and 7.5% reported that passengers were intentionally distracting them by, for example, tickling them or trying to grab the wheel (Shope, 2006).
Figure 1: Distractions Reported by California High School Seniors in 2006
Source: “Injury Prevention” Journal
The key issue is that teenage passengers often create dangerous situations for the driver by encouraging high-risk behavior, which triggers emotional impulses that neither the drivers themselves nor their parents can control. In order to understand the behavior of teenage drivers, it is important to consider all different factors that affect it, and the figure below summarizes those influences.
Figure 2: Influences on Youthful Driving Behavior
Source: “Injury Prevention” Journal
Peer pressure is an extremely powerful factor that can lead to teenage driver distractions even when there are no passengers in the car. For instance, very often teenagers do not want to ignore their friends, which leads to texting and driving. This and many other reasons contributed to the development of the Graduated Licensing Programs (GDL) in all states, which divide the process of obtaining driving privileges into steps (Simmons-Morton et al., 2014). The first step is to take a written test for a learner’s permit, which allows for supervised driving. The next step is the road test, after which teenagers 18 and older can drive independently, and teens under 18 can drive with restrictions on passengers and nighttime driving. The research suggests that the GDL has led to a 37% overall decrease in the number of fatal crashes involving 16-year-old drivers between 1996 and 2005 (Simmons-Morton et al., 2014). Additionally, the rate of fatal crashes involving teenage passengers decreased by 41% and crashes with passengers of other ages decreased by 49% (Ferguson et al., 2007). Passengers in the car driven by a teenager play a significant, if not equal to the driver’s role in maintaining safety during the ride. Therefore, it is important to be aware of the peer pressure, be able to resist it when needed and to be a responsible passenger when driven by a peer.
Works Cited (MLA Format)
Ferguson, Susan, Eric Tech, and Anne McCartt. “Progress in Teenage Crash Risk During the Last Decade.” Journal of Safety Research 37.2 (2007): 137-45.
Frisman, Paul. “Teen Driving Behavior.” Old Research Report 3.53 (2010).
Moller, Mette, and Sonja Haustein. “Peer Influence on Speeding Behaviour among Male Drivers Aged 18 and 28.” Accident Analysis & Prevention 64.1 (2014): 92-99.
Shope, J.T. “Influences on Youthful Driving Behavior and Their Potential for Guiding Interventions to Reduce Crashes.” Injury Prevention 12.1 (2006): 9-14.
Simons-Morton, B. G., Bingham, C. R., Falk, E. B., Li, K., Pradhan, A. K., Ouimet, M. C., Almani, F. & Shope, J. T. (2014). “Experimental effects of injunctive norms on simulated risky driving among teenage males.” Health Psychology, 33(7), 616.
Hookah: An Underratedly Dangerous Tobacco Product
New generations of young people have brought different different ways of using tobacco into popular culture. Currently, hookah is a very popular use of tobacco that has quite ludicrously taken ahold of a large portion of young party goers. Hookah bars typically also serve alcohol, so they have become an alternative to traditional bars. While many people feel that hookah is a harmlessly fun activity, many studies show that just like other forms of tobacco, it poses health risks.
The biggest issue with hookah’s popularity in young people is due to lack of information and skewed perception. A study published in Tobacco Induced Diseases journal collected data from both hookah users and non-users. As stated in the figure below, more than half of hookah users in the study felt that hookah is less harmful than cigarettes (Aljarrah et al., 2009).
Hookah users’ harm perceptions in comparison to cigarettes
Furthermore, a study published in Tobacco Control collected all hookah products in Lebanon and samples from Dubai (United Arab Emirates), Palestine, Syria, Jordan, Bahrain, Canada, Germany and South Africa. The study found that “the majority had textual health warning labels covering on average only 3.5% of total surface area of the package. Misleading descriptors were commonplace on waterpipe tobacco packages and related accessories” (Nakkash et al., 2010). Therefore, it is clear that hookah companies are not regulated enough to provide adequate information to users about how harmful they can be.
Hookah can also be dangerous because of their link to other substance use. For example, a study published in Drug and Alcohol Dependence found that “Hookah users were more likely to use other substances, including cigarettes, cannabis, alcohol, cocaine, and amphetamines. The strongest associations emerged between hookah use and alcohol and cigarette use” (Goodwin et al., 2014).
Even when hookah is being used on its own, it can still pose serious health concerns. For example, a study published in the Journal of Pakistan Medical Association tested carbon monoxide (CO) levels emitted by the smoke of different sizes of hookah and traditional tobacco cigarettes. The study found that “Mean carbon monoxide fractions (% by volume) of hookah smoke, using domestic charcoal were 0.38±0.07 (large hookah; unfiltered); 1.40±0.43 (small hookah; unfiltered)…and 0.41±0.08 (cigarette smoke)” (Sajid et al., 1993). Therefore, CO levels of hookah smoking can be much higher than those of traditional cigarettes.
Furthermore, a study published in Europe PMD tested the genotoxicity of hookah smoke, and found that “The mitotic index (MI), chromosomal aberrations (CA), sister chromatid exchanges (SCE) and satellite associations (SA) were analyzed. All the parameters showed a significant increase (p < 0.01) in the smokers compared with control individuals, viz MI, 3.88-5.41; CA, 0.94-2.22; SCE, 3.59-5.66; and SA, 5.2-8.65. A distinct time and dose effect relationship was observed. Hookah smoke is thus, both clastogenic and genotoxic for human beings” (Yadav et al., 2000).
Hookah is a trend that has found its way into trendy bars and party-going millennials very easily. Its easy accessibility, diversity of flavors and types, and fairly affordable prices have led to its proliferation across the global market. While hookah seems like a harmless pastime and social activity, it is clear that it poses health risks that are as real as those of traditional cigarettes.
Works Cited
Aljarrah K, Ababneh ZQ, Al-Delaimy WK. Perceptions of hookah smoking harmfulness: predictors and characteristics among current hookah users. Tobacoo Induced Diseases. Vol 5, p 1-7. 2009.
Goodwin RD, Grinberg A, Shapiro J, et al. Hookah use among college students: Prevalence, drug use, and mental health. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. Vol 141, p 16-20. 2014.
Nakkash R, Khalil J. Health warning labelling practices on narghile (shisha, hookah) waterpipe tobacco products and related accessories. Tobacco Control. The British Medical Journal. Vol 19, p 235-239. 2010.
Sajid KM, Akhter M, Malik GQ. Carbon monoxide fractions in cigarette and hookah (hubble bubble) smoke. Pakistan Medical Association. p 179-182. 1993.
Yadav JS, Thakur S. Genetic risk assessment in hookah smokers. Europe PMC. Vol 101, p 101-113. 2000.
Television and Family: The Social Implications of a Mass Medium
Before the rise of the Internet and the immediacy of streaming platforms like Netflix and Hulu, television dominated the 20th century as the primary medium of entertainment and communication. Television was – less so than today – the center of Western culture, with blockbuster shows like Seinfeld and Friends dominating the landscape of American entertainment. In 1989, 98% of household in the U.S. own a television set, with those T.Vs being turned on for an average of 7 hours a day (Christopher, 210). Television’s mass dispersion into millions of households has also created intergenerational roots into familial standards of life. As one of the major mediums of advertising, television connects the audience directly with products and services advertisers sell. Coupled with a nation watching T.V. shows for hours on end, television holds a strong arm over consumer activity. In fact, advertising on television has been shown to influence children’s developmental behavior, making them more inclined to buy a product seen on t.v. (Fabes, 338).
Figure 1. Breakdown of television content.
Moreover, television has further implications on the psychological state of an individual and the individual’s relationship with others. In particular, familial relations have shown to be heavily influenced by the presence of television as most family gatherings (i.e. dinner time, leisure) take place around a t.v. set. The content of television shows has influence over family dynamics: drama shows have a tendency to create tension between family members while comedy achieves the opposite (Rosenblatt, 106). This cause-and-effect comes from the notion that “art imitates reality”; shows are designed to mimic and replicate real-life scenarios and even create ideal situations that viewers wish to have. There is an emotional connection that develops from watching a television show because the viewer connects the content that he or she is watching. Television shows are primarily centered around events that have either happened in real life or have the potential to happen. Historical fiction is a genre that is most common on television, with events like world wars, world cups, and commemorative anniversaries coming up frequently as topics to watch (Holdsworth, 138). Their popularity hinges on the idea of nostalgia: people want to relive potent moments of the past, whether good or bad, as a means of self-preservation.
Television is a complex, multi-layered medium that plays heavily into the human psyche. Its revolutionary way of bringing communication to the next level is why out society is heavily grounded in t.v. dictating cultural trends and displaying socioeconomic issues. Advertising has taken note of this from the get-go, and uses television’s non-stop format to consistently bombard viewers with advertisements in a way that engrains the product into our minds and everyday lives.
Works Cited:
- Christopher, F. Scott et al. “Family Television Viewing: Implications for Family Life Education.” Family Relations, vol. 38, no. 2, 1989, pp. 210–214. www.jstor.org/stable/583677.
- Ayers, Jerry B. “Elementary School Teachers’ Attitudes toward Instructional Television.” The Journal of Experimental Education, vol. 41, no. 1, 1972, pp. 1–4. www.jstor.org/stable/20157315.
- Fabes, Richard A. et al. “A Time to Reexamine the Role of Television in Family Life.” Family Relations, vol. 38, no. 3, 1989, pp. 337–341. www.jstor.org/stable/585062.
- Holdsworth, Amy. “‘Television Resurrections’: Television and Memory.” Cinema Journal, vol. 47, no. 3, 2008, pp. 137–144. www.jstor.org/stable/30136121.
- Rosenblatt, Paul C., and Michael R. Cunningham. “Television Watching and Family Tensions.” Journal of Marriage and Family, vol. 38, no. 1, 1976, pp. 105–111. www.jstor.org/stable/350554.
Leishmaniasis: What is it and What is Being Done?
Leishmaniasis is a parasitic disease caused by the Leishmania parasite. There are several kinds of Leishmaniasis that can occur in people, but cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis are the most common. This infection is spread by bites from phlebotomine sand flies, which can be seen Figure 1 (CDC, 2013). Visceral Leishmaniasis is the most serious infection and is prevalent in 6 countries; Bangladesh, Brazil, Ethiopia, India, South Sudan and Sudan. Cutaneous leishmaniasis is more common, but less serious than visceral. It is prevalent in 10 countries including Afghanistan, Algeria, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ethiopia, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Peru, Sudan and the Syrian Arab Republic (WHO, 2016).
With cutaneous leishmaniasis, sores appear on the skin of the infected person. These sores can get worse and become ulcers, but are usually never too serious. Usually, the sores from cutaneous leishmaniasis can heal on their own without treatment. With visceral leishmaniasis, the internal organs of the infected person are affected. When affected with this form of leishmaniasis, the person usually suffers from a fever, severe weight loss, swelling of internal organs (especially spleen and liver), low red and white blood cell count (CDC, 2016). If left untreated, visceral leishmaniasis can be fatal. According to a study by Alvar et al. in 2012, there are about 20-40,000 deaths per year as a result of leishmaniasis disease.
Leishmaniasis is a public health issue since a total of roughly 88 countries are burdened with the disease, which can be seen in figure 2. Additionally, the disease continues to spread due to large migrations of people, urbanization, and poor irrigation. The disease is also made worse by individual risk factors that occur in the affected countries. Risk factors such as HIV, malnutrition, and genetic mutations can increase the severity of the disease (Desjeux, 2004).
The saliva from non-infected sand flies might be the future in Leishmaniasis vaccines. According to a study conducted where a group of rhesus monkeys were bitten by uninfected sandflies and then were infected with leishmaniasis. When they were bitten by uninfected flies first, they seemed to have built up an immunity to the disease. The emergence of this new research is important since many people are migrating or traveling to countries where leishmaniasis is endemic. As a result, they will not have been exposed to the saliva from the sand flies, therefore are at a higher risk of contracting the disease. Additionally, there is really no effective vaccine for the disease, and since the disease is most common in less developed countries, it is crucial that an accessible and effective form of protection is offered (Oliviera, 2015).
Figure 1: Life cycle of leishmaniasis parasite (CDC)
Figure 2: Map of the leishmaniasis disease (WHO)
Works Cited:
Leishmaniasis in high-burden countries: An epidemiological update based on data reported in 2014. (2016, June 3). World Health Organization Weekly Epidemiological Record, 22(91), 285-296.
Center for Disease Control: Biology. (2013, January 10). https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/leishmaniasis/biology.html
Desjeux, P. (2004, September). Leishmaniasis: Current situation and new perspectives. Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 27(5), 305-318.
Alvar, J., Vélez, I. D., Bern, C., Herrero, M., Desjeux, P., Cano, J., Boer, M. D. (2012, May 31). Leishmaniasis Worldwide and Global Estimates of Its Incidence. PLoS ONE, 7(5). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0035671
Oliviera, F. (2015, July 13). Sand-Fly Vaccine Provides Protection in Monkeys Against Leishmaniasis. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease.
