There were several parts that I found particularly interesting in these six chapters. James Weldon Johnson, the same man who dealt with the conductor in the first three chapters, “counted 160 churches in 1930” Churches played a significant role in Harlem between 1900 and 1930. Previous chapters spoke of the “On to Harlem” movement and how ministers influenced blacks to move to Harlem by referring to the migration as a sort of crusade.

Churches acted as a connection to the culture that Caribbean immigrants left behind. Through churches they could preserve their customs and traditions despite living in New York and were thus referred to as “homeland societies”. This also contributed to some of the resentment between Caribbean immigrants and native blacks who believed that Caribbean blacks were not assimilating, but were holding on to their previous cultures. They felt that Caribbean immigrants’ loyalty lied with their homeland and not with America, which troubled and offended native blacks especially during the time of the First World War.

On the other hand, some Caribbean immigrants who attended black American churches were discomforted by the very emotionally expressive practices done in these churches. One American-born Caribbean, E Ethelred Brown, stated that their emotional practice “dangerously borders on fanaticism.” Ironically, churches were in some cases a unifying factor amongst blacks. Some American black denominations tended to have Caribbean ministers, while some Caribbean denominations had black American ministers. The African Methodist Episcopal church was one such church that many Caribbean immigrant ministers and a predominantly native born congregation.

The section on Marcus Garvey was also particularly interesting. Marcus Garvey was the founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association. Garvey’s idea of improvement was black unity and black purity. This sparked the unsuccessful Back to Africa movement, which operated with the idea that blacks could not fully prosper in America. They needed to fully separate themselves in order to thrive. Despite Garvey’s radical ideas, he was empowering black people. Being a part of the black race was the reason that many people were treated unjustly and couldn’t move upwards in society. While this might have felt like a weakness, Garvey presented it as the source of their strength and power. Garvey believed that they needed to preserve the purity of their race in order to maintain this strength.

Despite this, Garvey caused much harm to blacks trying to integrate into American society, and what else could you expect when Garvey claims things like deep down all whites were members of the KKK? Garvey even went as far as to meet with the Ku Klux Klan. Other black leaders like W.E.B. Du Bois tried to undo Garvey’s damage by discrediting him. He wrote that Garvey’s ideas did not reflect those of intelligent blacks. He even referred to Garvey as a fat, little, and ugly man. Unfortunately, some damage was already done, as Garvey was sometimes mistakenly associated with the NAACP instead of the UNIA. Eventually, Garvey was deported technically due to mail fraud and the Back to Africa movement did not succeed.

Politicians in the Harlem community did not reflect the neighborhood. They were mostly white men who rose to power using Tammany Hall, a corrupt political structure that provided kickbacks/ benefits to immigrants. In the beginning, this system was mostly offered to Irish, Jewish, and Italian immigrants, but would extend into the black/ Caribbean neighbors. Tammany Hall fought for immigrants’ right to citizenship and the right to vote, but only as a basis for the extension of power for certain politicians who believed that they could easily manipulate the immigrants for their needs. This system would weaken into the 1940’s, in which the first black politicians started to gain leeway, but it was a major roadblock for progress. Tammany Hall would try to establish its power by dividing Harlem between native blacks and Caribbean immigrants.

In response to World War I, there was a revival of nationalism and nativism, which lead to anti-foreign sentiment. Tammany Hall refined this notion to divide native blacks and Caribbeans from amassing power and maintaining their own power. The source of major conflict was job competition, since occupations for blacks were limited and Caribbeans were often preferred in comparison for being “smarter” and “more hard working.” Caribbeans also tended to separate themselves from native blacks and heavily focused on building an ethnic community. However, there was a forum in which there was communication about ideas and “the bigger picture.” This forum was called the stepladder, in which speakers would stand on a soap box and communicate/educate on a variety of issues, like race or evolution. Socialism/ Communist ideas were circulated around Harlem through these forums because under this thought everyone was equal and received the same. This notions undercut the racial split hierarchy in America.

A notable speaker in these forums was Marius Garvey who founded the UNIA. He believed in the return to Africa of all black people as a form of unification. He believed races could not live together equal, the purity of race should be m,aintained racism always is present, and that black people needed to exclusively run a country. In this account, he disregarded all ethnic divides and backgrounds of black people and this diaspora to Africa is much more of an imperialism policy than a freedom from oppression. His plan was to empower blacks from America and elsewhere to fight for their civil rights and work towards an individualized economy before the move to Africa. He was deported on a small charge in order to prevent the spreading of his radical ideas. He is now seen as a prophet in the the Rastafarian community.

People in Harlem struggled to establish their own businesses. Businesses required community support, but were very difficult to keep afloat competitively. Businesses often could not keep up to other white business. Caribbeans often ran more businesses and had a niche market in selling ethnic food. Illegal businesses, on the other hand, like the numbers game brought together the neighborhood as well as was participated in by outsiders. It provided multiple jobs like bankers and runners, and it was profitable. people would play hoping to win big, like the lottery. In this circle, the big bosses often become well known and rich. St. Clair, a women running the operation opposed to police framing people and fought for civil rights. Holstein would donate large sum of money to the community. Pompez was a famous baseball player. These black bosses would have to protect their territory from outside gangsters. like Dutch Schultz, who would try to overtake their operation.

Literature played an important component to Harlem culture. It exposes the struggle of wanting to be accepted in American culture, yet being impeded by race and by being a foreigner- Claude McKay was a well known Jamaican writer.

Overall, my favorite chapters were the Panama Canal and the Underground Enterprise Chapters. I like learning about the underbelly of society that drove change.

Adrian Horczak

People of New York

Professor Jenifer Lutton

February 18, 2015

Blood Relations Ch. 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, & 11

The book has a theme of conflict and cooperation. The black residents of Harlem formed their own social groups, lodges, and churches as a way of working together to find solutions to the hardships they faced in New York City. They struggled getting positions in low wage jobs like janitors and servants. Even if they had the credentials to work in a more favorable position, they were denied that possibility. Thus, African Americans decided to try and start their own businesses by appealing for help from a few wealthy black Americans. They worked together to make their voices heard and some were imprisoned and punished because of ideas thought to be too radical by the white American leaders. One of the best ways to get support for black civil rights was by being economically successful. The lack of access to well paying jobs did not stop them because black Americans started their own successful, although illegal businesses, running lotteries.

In addition, black Americans developed a system of patronage based on personal loyalty to deliver their votes to white Republican candidates. Some even received great rewards for being so loyal. For example, John W. A. Shaw became the Deputy Tax Assessor for Queens, the highest position held by an African American in the state. As they shifted slowly from the Republican to the Democratic Party at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century, they formed other organizations to ensure their voices were heard. They made it a priority to encourage leaders to hire blacks in professional jobs. At that time, there were no black police officers.

Feeling a sense of unity among blacks, some African Americans wanted all black people to separate from whites and unite together in Africa where they can govern themselves and provide opportunities for one another. A well-known proclaimer of this idea was Marcus Garvey. The American Revolution inspired Garvey since Americans formed their own successful nation. For many, his ideas seemed very radical and his meetings with the Ku Klux Klan made people feel suspicious of his activities and beliefs. Fearing a revolution of black inhabitants occurring, whites tried to find ways to deport the Jamaican immigrant Marcus Garvey. Therefore, they accused him of mail fraud, imprisoned him, and later deported him from the United States.

A very successful business in Harlem was the lottery. Although illegal, the lottery was the largest employer of black workers in Harlem. In addition, the entrepreneurs that ran the lotteries were respected within the neighborhood. The lottery also helped many small businesses thrive because they collected bids from customers. Popularity was very high among black Americans, but white Americans also participated in this illegal, African-American owned enterprise. Those responsible for running these lotteries pocketed between two thousand to six thousand dollars a week. They used their large sums of money to secure equal political rights for all blacks in America.

It is ironic that lotteries were outlawed when they were so popular among working class and upper class people. Today there are a lot of popular lotteries, since they became legal.

In the next chapters of Blood Relations, we no longer discuss the emigration of Africans and Caribbean immigrants to the U.S. but rather their settlement. These immigrants, finally in Harlem, begin to diffuse into the culture through various mediums. First and foremost, it is through churches, some that have been founded years prior to the immigrant wave, and some that are founded by these incoming immigrants. Other than churches, there were benevolent societies that sought to help incoming immigrants by offering jobs and housing. Beyond churches and societies, the black immigrants joined the political scene of harlem, although this scene was limited to mainly the elite financially stable and was overall still run by the corrupt Tammany Hall. One political individual, Marcus Garvey, a native of Jamaica is discussed in great detail due to his contribution to the harlem community and his notorious ideology and Pan-African plot. Furthermore, these chapters take a look at the gambling society of harlem and the wealthy bankers that capitalized on it, yet returned back to the community. Finally, the chapters discuss the contributions of Caribbean immigrants to Harlem’s newspapers, literature, arts, and history.

Chapter 4 of Blood Relations emphasizes the importance of religion in the Harlem community. Incoming foreigners, most of whom came from islands that practiced various forms of Christian religion, were attracted in masses to the available churches. One church, the African Methodist episcopal was a hub for almost 60,000 members, a portion of who were Caribbean islanders. If the available churches did not attract the Caribbean immigrants, then they would found there own, and base those churches on their home island’s practices. Churches however were not only for the practice of religion however. These churches were social clubs through which immigrants where able to communicate with other immigrants and natives. In doing so, immigrants were able to maintain a sense of their homeland and to also assimilate to the Harlem American society. Churches that were financially well-off, such as the AME, were able to further their image as social clubs by financing weekly dances for Harlemites. These dances attracted new members, but also kept current members interested and close-knit. Other institutions were also created to benefit immigrants. Labeled as “benevolent societies”, these organizations were founded to support incoming immigrants by offering jobs, housing, and community gatherings. Through such institutions, Caribbean and African immigrants were able to more easily diffuse into the American society.

Chapter 5 of Blood Relations discusses the Political scene in Harlem during the influx of Caribbean and African Immigrants. In this chapter we learn that Caribbean immigrants and the native blacks did not get along in the political scene due to differing ideologies. Specifically, native blacks believed the immigrants were too radical in their mindset and beliefs. Even if the two groups did come to a consensus, it would have made no difference considering that they did not have power in politics. People of color were not given voice as they had no representation and disallowed to have any. Still however, political figures grew in the black community, most of them however were of the black elite. Tammany hall, the local government was supremely corrupt at the time, and of course had a discrimination of blacks. However, the organization realized the growing number of possible black voters and thus sought to employ black politicians that severed their interests. However, the politicians they funded would further cause detriment as positions were given due to favoritism and nationality. Caribbean politicians would seek to avoid giving black natives positions if even they deserved it. This caused further political discourse between black natives and the incoming immigrants.

Chapter 6 of Blood Relations focuses on the political scene in the streets of Harlem. Specifically, there is a focus on the stepladder as a medium through which orators were able to express their political positions in the streets of Harlem. Due to the limited restrictions of speech on the streets, many of these orators would discuss topics unspoken off in political halls. Many would discuss the oppression of the black Americans and some would discuss socialism. Female orators even preached from the stepladder. These brave women would also speak of topics previously unspoken of, such as the rights of the black woman, and birth control. The street corner was a unique political scene. Through this medium, the identity of the orator need not be introduced, thus an audience cannot preach hatred of the speaker’s background because they do not know it. Furthermore, an audience could decide whether they disliked or liked an orator on the spot, without having to listen if they wished not to. Thus the street corner was a place only for ideas, and through the preaching of ideas, many orators rose to prominence. One such orator was Jamaican born Marcus Garvey who preached of black nationalism. The impact of the stepladder was not limited to the street corner however, as the ideas discussed led to gatherings afterwards, for example socialist gatherings, and even to organizations such as the African Blood Brotherhood. Therefore the street corner was arguably a vital and useful part of Harlem politics. The only thing stopping an individual from speaking would have been weather. Through the stepladder, unknown politicians were able to rise to power through street support and contentious yet significant ideas were able to discussed freely.

Chapter 7 of Blood Relations discuses the legacy of Marcus Garvey. Marcus Garvey was a Jamaican born immigrant who supported creating a united African community. He sought to do so for the benefit of Africans, believing that together they are powerful and can aid one another economically and politically. However, he believed that after uniting the African people, that together they must travel “back” to Africa and create their own society free of white oppression where they can rise to power as to challenge the strongest nations in the world, specifically the United States. Being a strong orator, he was actually able to gain a massive number of supporter through his preaching of basic human rights for all, and the promise that the new African society would provide such rights and all the needs for its people. He also preached that, economically, the new African nation would be equal. Garvey wanted his new nation to be run completely by Africans, thus they would have their own economy, government, press, and so on. Garvey was also a believer in racial purity. He disliked the intermixing of black people, especially the mixing of African Americans and Caribbean islanders. He even met with the Ku Klux Klan, as he understood their plight for white purity. He agreed that whites should maintain their purity, and blacks should maintain their own purity and that is why they must move to Africa. Garvey even funded a ship, the “Black Star Liner” as opposed to the White Star Liner to take him and his supporters back to Africa. In the end however, Garvey’s dream was never fulfilled as he was deported to Jamaica, technically for mail fraud. However the true reason behind his deportation was that he was actually gaining a large following and uniting the blacks of Harlem. This was seen as threatening by the white government because they found the the united blacks are dangerous to their society of oppression. Thus, to stop any possibility of an uprising, the government issued a deportation of Garvey and thus ended the dream and the unity. Although Garvey was bat-shit crazy, his overall goal in united blacks was understandable considering what was their current situation of oppression, disunity, and poverty under a white government.

Chapter 9 of Blood Relations focuses on an important part of history in the Harlem community: the numbers racket. The numbers game was similar to the lottery, in that players would choose three numbers, and if those numbers were picked at a drawing time, the player would win some money; simple, yet detrimental. This is because the game was extremely addicting to Harlemites. Harlemites would play the game weekly, spending all of their wages on the seemingly easy game in hopes of winning big money. However, rarely did any one ever win as mob bosses and bankers of the likes Casper Holstein supremely rigged the game to insure limited winners, and infinite profits. No matter however, mob bosses like Casper Holstein were benevolent bankers in that they gave back to the community. Holstein would fund community projects and would help people with financial problems. Furthermore, he would donate wealth to those struggling to make ends meet.  Through such generosity, bankers like Holstein gained massive respect from the community even if the numbers game was illegal. Racketeers also fought back against authorities and kept white mobsters, like Dutch Shultz, out of the underground Harlem economy. An example of this would be Madame Stephanie St. Claire who was one of the most powerful female bosses in Harlem. She was greatly admired in Harlem for her courage and for her opposition to the oppression blacks faced. The numbers game raises the question of whether these bosses were actually generous or rather greedy. This is because the game was addicting to many people and cost them their wages, but the mob bosses would give back to the community. I think I would regard them as benevolent because they weren’t stealing from Harlemites, but rather offered a service and sought to benefit the community.

Chapter 10 of Blood Relations discusses the impact Caribbean Immigrants had on the media in Harlem. Caribbean immigrants were famous for writing in black newspapers such as Opportunity and Negro World. These newspapers would preach the problems blacks faced in the Harlem society and would oppose the oppression of the government. More so however, they provided entertainment. Claude McKay was known for writing book reviews in newspapers, and his reviews were constantly circulated and read. Other than newspapers, Caribbean writers would write books that highlighted the struggle between immigrants and the native blacks. From these books, it seemed that native blacks had a resentment of the incoming immigrants, labeling them “monkey chasers,” and discriminating against them through jobs and housing.Some immigrant writers went somewhat too far in their views, for example Edgar Grey. He highlighted the struggle of dark skinned Caribbean Islanders and stated that black natives were discriminating against his dark skin and those like him. He states, ” If it comes to the place where, these white men’s children think they are going to deprive black men and women of representation, when they are qualified, because of the blackness of their skins, let us speak right here and now, and say that it is going to be a most bitter and vicious war.” Furthermore, Caribbean Immigrants contributed to the arts in Harlem. One of Garvey’s ex-wives,  Amy Garvey, wrote plays. Another playwright was Eulailie Spence who received an award for her play The Whipping. Caribbean immigrants also contributed to music, for example Sam Manning, introduced the calypso genre of dance to Harlem. Finally, through literature, Harlemites gained a new pride and desire of their African heritage. Author J. A. Rogers was a self-taught historian who published books discussing the past lives of Africans. His books were massively circulated and more than 20 editions for each was printed. His book One Hundred Facts About the Negro went through 18 editions in the first eight. This shows the immense interest black americans had of their past, which isn’t surprising. This is due to the fact that most black immigrants and some natives were of 3rd, 4th, or even more generations, and did not know of their African ancestry. Thus, authors like Rogers answered and sparked immense interest in black americans for knowledge about their past.

This book has presented me with a great deal of information which was previously unknown to me. Considering that I commute to Harlem almost every day, it seems right that I should learn about its past and the pasts of the residents that lived here. As I walk to school train station I will try to locate the plethora of places mentioned by Irma Watkins-Owens. I look forward to visiting the Caribbean community of Flatbush.

Starting with Chapter 4, Irma Watkins-Owens begins to truly dive into how the themes of movement and migrations (by blacks from the Caribbean, South, and Latin America) affected the development of Harlem as a unique community. Throughout the chapters she notes how the ethnic dynamics, the conflicts and cooperation between the immigrant blacks and native blacks led to the creation of Harlem being a sort of Mecca for the post-colonization era. Harlem, thanks its strong cultural roots, which were established by kinships, shared property, churches, and social clubs (the last two which were the main focus of Chapter 4), became a center for the black diaspora. Owens notes, “churches were among the fastest growing institutions shaping Harlem’s development as a black community” (57). Churches emerged along cultural lines. They were churches for native blacks, such as the African Methodist Episcopal and Abyssian Baptist churches, however the new churches were created to satisfy the new influx of immigrants from the south and Caribbean. When it came to churches, there were no strict lines of separation between natives and immigrants. A native black priest would serve a congregation of mostly Caribbean immigrants, while an immigrant could find opportunities in “historically black denominations” (59). Lines of separation did occur when it came to social institutions however. Social institutions and benevolent societies were common in the early 1900s in Harlem. There existed a wide variety of clubs and societies, and as Owens writes, “everyone belonged to something” (65). However things like culture, class and even economic status separated these clubs. An example would be the Societies of the Sons and Daughters of New York, which sought out only the best of the New York native African Americans. Other clubs were helpful, mostly for immigrants, as they would provide aid such as food and shelter. Overall these societies were based on three main ideas: “ [M]utual benefit and relief; economic and political adjustment; the perpetuation of desirable conditions in their homelands” (67).

Owens then moves on to talk about Harlem’s struggle for political autonomy. Harlem was unable to get direct political representation due to the conflicts between the immigrant and native blacks. Once the influx of immigration occurred, Caribbean peoples began to move up the political ranks, with men such as William Derrick and Adolph Howell joining other colored Democrats. The growth in immigration and population had also led to the creation of many new businesses and “ethnic based organizations” (80). These immigrants met they adversaries once America began grasp onto the ideals of Nativism. Separations occurred between native and immigrant blacks when it came to social and economical issues. Many saw the immigrants for nothing more than their refusal to naturalize. While many immigrants tried to assimilate to the native African American culture, they still maintained a strong connection to their homeland. The practices of Tammany Hall also caused strife between the groups. There would be an internal fight, as each group struggled to obtain the “[doled] out favors” and jobs by political bosses (86). It was because of these separations between native and black immigrants that Harlem failed to receive a direct representation in government. This led to terrible living conditions: “Overcrowded conditions, inadequate healthcare… high rents… prostitution…” among other things engulfed the Harlem community (91).

One of the leaders to emerge from Harlem’s growing social society and political interests was Marcus Garvey. Garvey was Jamaican born immigrant that moved to Harlem in the early 1900s. Garvey was a strong social activist and supported the ideals of Black Nationalism and Pan-Africanism. He was a stepladder speaker for his group the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), where he advocated for racial unity. Garvey was in support of something much greater than increased rights for Caribbean and native blacks. He proposed a theory of “Back to Africa,” where he depicted Africa as a safe haven and as place where all united blacks can have a fresh start. Garvey received heavy criticism for his beliefs however, and was scrutinized even by other black journalists and writers. They poked at his belief of racial purity. It was this belief that caused him to meet with the KKK, on the grounds that they shared a similar, but separate goal. While the KKK sought to create a dominant white race, Garvey and his followers believed in the creation of a dominant black race. Garvey’s plans to improve the lives of all blacks appealed to many. However, his radical actions caught the attention of the US government. His actions were seen as an attack on Nativist ideals, which grew during the WWI era. Anti-foreign sentiments raged during this time, and it was deemed dangerous that an immigrant could rise up and gain incredible support. While he was jailed and deported on the grounds of fraud, it is hard to ignore the true reasons for his exile.

In Chapter 9, Owens discusses the underground practice of numbers, an illegal lottery game, which also demonstrated the ethnic dynamics of Harlem. Bankers, who were the social and economical heads of numbers, were not only illegal bosses of the lottery, but were incredibly beneficial to the Harlem community. One such person was Madame Stephanie St. Clair. She was a renegade, and even openly expressed her connections to numbers. She worked to demolish the opposition of the Harlem blacks. She defied Dutch Schulz, a gangster who worked to take over the numbers game. She also exposed the police brutality within Harlem, which even led to the suspension of a few officers. Because of her work, she became a folk hero within the Harlem community. The next important banker was Casper Holstein. Holstein, although he kept a really low profile, made millions from numbers. Most of his money, however, he gave back to the Harlem community. Through his philanthropist work he mainly supported education and writing for blacks. Numbers represented something that unified the Harlem community, as native and immigrant blacks, and even some whites played the game. It was heavily set on trust, as players needed honest bankers to pay out if they won.

In the last main chapter, Owens discusses the writers of Harlem. The writing that came out of Harlem described what life was like within the community. Many writers utilized the dynamics between native and immigrant blacks as a basis for their stories. One such example was “City of Refuge” by Rudolph Fisher. He used the conflicts that existed between southern migrants and Caribbean immigrants to create a story about a Jamaican and North Carolina migrant. Writers not only focused on the conflicts, but also on “cross-cultural friendships” (153). They were also several Caribbean writers who utilized their own culture to create unique stories and plays. They would include the native dialect (a Caribbean English), and also music and beats such as calypso. They were other writers, such as Eric Walrond, who used their literary influence to describe the struggle of blacks within the community (156).

Overall, I enjoyed reading Owen’s Blood Relations. Her investigation into the creation of the current Harlem community is unique in its own manner. She investigates, as we discussed in class, at global (i.e. Panama), and local (naming specific streets within Harlem) levels. She does an incredible job of representing a variety of point of views. It is hard to find instances where her writing is one-sided or biased. Her progression is impeccable, and though it was much more of an informative piece, it may as well have been a novel. She clearly maps out the process in which immigrants left their homelands to move to NYC. Her examination of the people themselves is also evenly drawn and distributed. She focuses on people from both the lower and higher classes, as well as everything in between. Her writing has helped me better understand why Harlem is the way it is today. It also makes me wonder what Harlem will be like in the future.

This week we read chapters 4, 5, 7, 9, 10 and 11 of Blood Relations: Caribbean Immigrants and the Harlem Community, 1900-1930 by Irma Watkins-Owens. Chapter 7 detailed how churches, fraternal and benevolent societies, and lodges played an important role in the development of Harlem as a community. They were networks that connected the community internally and internationally. There were churches established by both people of Southern black and Caribbean black origins. There was a degree of separation between these two groups, as they were often pitted against each other and were not always on good terms. But even with the segregation Southern blacks joined Caribbean churches and Caribbean blacks joined Southern black churches. There we some organizations that were very exclusive, allowing African Americans of certain class and “native-ness” to join. All these kinds of organizations helped the community tremendously; such as buying buildings to be sold or rented, providing insurance and solidifying networks. It is interesting to see how the types of organizations multiplied over time. At first there were just Southern Black Churches but then more and more types from the Caribbean came until there were over 130. The same thing happened to the lodges and societies as they became specialized to different social classes and to women in addition to men.

Chapter 5 focuses on the political world of Harlem. As the black population in Harlem increased and became more settled, the issue of political power came up. The peoples of Harlem were divided into subgroups, which were pitted together. The complicated network of loyalties and alliances made up the political network of the neighborhood. Tammany Hall was a key player in this, and its story interested me very much. It was a Democratic political machine that represented the interests of mainly white immigrants like the Irish. This organization worked to open up New York to immigration due to its interests. As the population of Harlem became larger, they became an important target for players in the political world. Tammany Hall extended a hand to Caribbean blacks because they were immigrants too and because there were seen to have better education and skills than Southern blacks. This caused a rift between the two communities in Harlem as the Caribbean people were treated better, regardless of being “foreigners.” Afro-Caribbean people were given positions in power, while the Southern African Americans were not. I think it is important to look at things through the lens of politics so I found this section to be helpful for understanding the history of Harlem.

On the topic of politics, Marcus Garvey is an interesting person to study and is the subject of Chapter 7. He was a Jamaican-born man who became very politically involved. His ideals were based in Black Nationalism and pan-Africanism. He believed that all people of African ancestry should return to the Africa and represent their race with a nation of racial purity. Many including the NAACP viewed him as extremely radical. In 1914 he founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and established a permanent organization in Harlem. Harlem became the hub for this worldwide movement and it gained a sizable following. It also used the press, like the Negro World to gain popularity and awareness. He later created the Black Star Steamship Corporation and was arrested over a technicality concerning its advertisement. But this wasn’t the true reason he was arrested. The real reason was that he was seen as a threat because he had an image, resources, and a following. I think it very logical that a movement like this would be started, as it is a product of its age. It is also fascinating to me that this neighborhood became the center of something so important and influential for the world.

Chapter 9 focuses on the “Numbers playing game.” This was the illegal lottery, which employed the most blacks in the Harlem neighborhood. It was played openly until around the mid 1920’s. Watkins-Owens explains how these lotteries worked: “A numbers operation consisted of a banker, a group of collectors or runners who took bets from customers and perhaps several controllers who gathered the money and turned it in to the ‘bank.’” She continues to list other positions that the numbers employed. They were very complex and well organized operations and were completely underground. This brought money to the individuals in charge but also vitalized the economy of Harlem. Some bankers made large sums of money. I find it curious that these organizations were so massive but did not receive much attention. They were the largest employers in Harlem and many played the numbers but the numbers seldom received attention in the press. I am interested in how these massive operations were able to stay underground so effectively.

Chapter 10 focuses on the literary world of Harlem and the interracial relationships between native African Americans and black immigrants. These relationships were expressed in many written pieces of the time. As Harlem’s population became more prominent, the importance of race papers in New York grew in importance. Both native African American and black immigrant writers had a large impact as well. Writers like Claude McKay were supporters of cultural pluralism, which was essential in making Harlem what it was.

Chapter 11 is the conclusion of Blood Relations: Caribbean Immigrants and the Harlem Community, 1900-1930. Watkins-Owens stresses the important role of foreign-born black immigrants to Harlem, which is often times neglected. Race was not the only important factor in Harlem’s development. It was not only a “black neighborhood.” Ethnicity and the cultures of the native African Americans in addition to the Afro-Caribbean people forged the identity of Harlem. It was migrations and movement that made this all possible. After the emancipation of slaves in the Americas, projects like the Panama Canal and international shipping brought large waves of people to New York City seeking opportunity. An integral part of this whole process was the transnational networks that were developed. They allowed for people to move to and from the United States and their home countries and provided support in multiple ways. Divisions existed quite prominently at times between native African Americans and Afro-Caribbean people. Despite this churches, benevolent associations, political movements, newspapers and other organizations tied the community together and gave Harlem and extremely unique and pivotal role.

Throughout the many chapters of Blood Relations, written by Irma Watkins-Owens, the readers notice the emerging changes that take charge of the Harlem community. Many changes were underway during the years 1900 to 1930. In Chapter 4, known as Churches, Benevolent Associations, and Ethnicity, the growth and the spread of the influence of churches shows the major ways that they impacted the people of the Harlem community. As many native born African Americans and Caribbean immigrants moved to the Harlem region, many new social networks were created to form a sense of community and stability for the people. These organizations formed essential social links that helped assimilate all the colored people into the lifestyle of New York City. Over time, these groups became more specialized, as various types of people kept moving into Harem. I found it interesting that Churches became the first social organizations to become specialized for different types of people. Churches became very essential for most community members in many aspects of life. Churches became involved in all parts of the community; they helped provide many of the housing contracts for immigrants, they helped upkeep old traditions from native countries, and they helped form political connections by offering community members goals to follow. It was also interesting to me that the book mentioned that any man even slightly significant in Harlem, either native or foreign-born, was expected to be a member of one of the major lodges or fraternal orders of the community. This statement shows the major impact that these social organizations had over the community by providing gridlines and creating social connections between the most influential of the community members. The thing that I became curious about was related to the wide array of influence that the Churches seemed to have over the community. In the book, Watkins-Owens makes it clear that many of the community members in Harlem found it nearly impossible to attend church regularly due to the fact that they had to work at their jobs even on Sundays. These workers were mainly porters or elevator men, needing to work extra hours just to etch out a living in New York City. It is also interesting to note that Churches used to cater to only native born African Americans. However, as more Caribbean immigrants came to Harlem, new Churches specialized to cater to their traditions popped up in the community. This shows that social organizations were essential and considered necessary for the community to function.

Although social organizations were some of the most important foundations of the Harlem community, politics and representation in the community was equally important to the members. In Chapter 5, known as Politics and the Struggle for Autonomy, the steps that led to representation in the community and in New York City are outlined. In the first decades of living at the community, black people had no direct representation in politics of the city. As Caribbean immigrants moved into the city, new political alliances started forming in Harlem in exchange for certain favors. Overall, however, most of the black members slowly switched from the Republican Party to the Democratic Party. Slowly over time, influential men, such as Anderson and Morton, who became heads of political parties, helped improve the political position of blacks in the patronage system. Something interesting to note about politics is the development of Tammany Hall in 1786. This organization was a Democratic political machine that favored white immigrants, specifically the Irish immigrants. This organization helped bring political power and influence to many of the white immigrants. These white foreign immigrants tended to gain naturalization and citizenship quickly in an attempt to gain jobs and establish a stable lifestyle. Native and immigrant blacks, however, were slower at the process of gaining citizenship. They weren’t in a rush to gain citizen ship solely for practical reasons. I found this to be very interesting because this was a great way to assimilate Caribbean immigrants into the native African American population of Harlem. However, these immigrants seemed to fear gaining citizenship due to the possibility of losing connection with their traditional roots once they become tied in with the social organizations of Harlem. As the years went by, the local political clubs were mainly available to more influential natives and immigrants. However, these connections allowed blacks for the first time in history to start leading their community by making decisions about community-improvement projects, etc.

With the development of political clubs and institutions, many new radical ideas started to form. Of them all, Marcus Garvey serves as one of the most drastic and dangerous ideology that brings the Harlem community to a dilemma. In Chapter 7, known as Marcus Garvey “Negro Subject of Great Britain”, Garvey’s ideologies and his rise and fall are described and analyzed. After World War I, Marcus Garvey, moved to Harlem in 1916 and founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA). Garvey’s radical ideologies caused much distress in the American communities; there was a lot of opposition to his ideas. On the other hand, he had a lot of support from certain types of people. Marcus Garvey believed that there were better possibilities for the black people if they went back to their native countries. Many Americans feared Garvey’s influence on the blacks because then the employers would lose cheap laborers from their companies. Garvey gained the support of many influential blacks in the communities of America. Garvey’s methods for supporting his ideas became extreme and aroused suspicion. I found it extremely interesting that Garvey met up with the Ku Klux Klan at one point during his campaign. One of the main things that stuck out to me was the fact that Garvey was deported from the country. Apparently, it was due to the fact that Garvey had committed fraud related to his Black Star Line propaganda. However, it seems more likely that this was just an excuse for American officials to get rid of Garvey because he posed a risk to the economies of influential white people in the cities. It is also interesting to note that Garvey’s expulsion from America actually caused an outcry in America by many people in an attempt to provide him with equal treatment for the court case.

While politics and social organizations were on a public display for all the community members to see, illegal underground systems started to develop as the Harlem communities became more intricate. In Chapter 9, known as The Underground Entrepreneur, the development and impact that these illegal systems have on the communities as a whole are thoroughly discussed. One of these systems, known as “Numbers” developed within the community in the 1920s. Numbers, which was similar to an illegal lottery, in the beginning, could be played out in the open. However, police officials became aware of these economic tactics and they tried to put an end to it by making it illegal. In a Numbers operation, there was a banker, collectors/runners (took bets from people), and then controllers (returned money to the bank). Each banker would have many legal staff members who work around the clock. They provided the community directly with most of the jobs. The money that the bankers made, which was a lot, was then used as investments in Harlem property and in small businesses. Many small businesses benefitted from the help of Numbers, thus aiding the community by providing networks and economic support. I found it interesting that white gangsters even started the practice in response to what they saw in the Harlem communities. I also found it interesting that although the bankers from Numbers aided the community by supporting it, many of the community members viewed Numbers as a short-term element. Mostly poor people participated in Numbers. It is interesting to see how a community evolves over time as certain elements change in the community for the better.

As the Harlem communities developed, so did their literary arts and press. In Chapter 10, known as Harlem Writers and Intraracial Ethnicity, one of the most important things, the press, is discussed with a detailed explanation of how it impacted the community. With the press, the tensions between the native African Americans and the Caribbean immigrants are noted in their writings. New York Race papers were produced and maintained by the increasing numbers of black immigrants coming into the Harlem community. These race papers became the center stones for many immigrants to discuss their propaganda and discontent with something in society. The press became very influential in the community during the years 1917 to 1930. During the Depression, many immigrant and native writers talked mainly about the racial tensions that communities had between members. I thought it was interesting that the independent newspapers seemed to express their emotions more freely than newspapers who were owned by white influences.

In Chapter 11, known as Conclusion: Blood Relations in the Black Metropolis, we see the major impact that Caribbean immigrants had on the Harlem communities. It is interesting to note that native African Americans and Caribbean immigrants had a very tense history with one another due to racial reasons. Each group of people created their own social networks and economic systems to help them cope with the harsh living conditions of New York City. These people each formed many types of Churches that helped form goals and unity on a political level. Everyone was able to create a way to seem familiar with their new surroundings. Overall, it was very amazing to see how native African Americans and Caribbean immigrants for the first time in history encountered each other and tried to assimilate themselves into the communities in efficient ways.

With a large influx of Caribbean immigrants came a need for housing resources. These immigrants were able to achieve the housing that they needed through various means, and through collectively organizing ways of completing this task, they were able to form a community of their own in Harlem. By collectively pooling money, immigrant populations were able to purchase reasonably large pieces of real estate, thereby enabling immigrants to move in by the thousands. Once this happened, the same thing that happens when any immigrant population begins moving into an area happened in Harlem: nativist sentiments arose in people who were occupied the area first. Even though both groups were of the same race, their vastly different cultures sparked an instant rift between them. They created slanderous terms for each other, and generally made attempts to voice their dislike for each other. All this was turned on its head when it came to one thing, however. That thing was church. Despite their differences, the two groups were able to peacefully interact, as they all went to the same churches.

Politically, Harlem was quite an exciting place, as the changing demographic gave need for new types of policies, and more importantly, new representation for this new demographic. Paramount to all political goals, however, was the importance of establishing a politically autonomous Harlem that could hold its own against the rest of the city. Unfortunately, there were many hinderances to the political stability of Harlem that took years to become resolved. African American and West Indian blacks were largely not registered to vote or not naturalized citizens, respectively, so it was nearly impossible for them to get proper congressional representation. Finally, however, in 1944 Adam Clayton Powell, Jr. was elected as the first congressman of Harlem.

Marcus Garvey, an important and rather controversial figure in this era, was essentially the black equivalent of a white supremacist. Due to his connections with the Ku Klux Klan and his divisive language, he was largely disregarded and even condemned for his actions. He began the UNIA (Universal Negro Improvement Association) to, as the title of the organization suggests, improve the lives of blacks. He was also known for starting the “Back to Africa” movement in which he encouraged blacks, no matter what ethnicity they identified with, to move back to their ancestral homeland, Africa. This idea was hugely unpopular, garnering essentially no traction, as no significant population made such a move as a result.

As for controversial figures, the Gambling scene in Harlem provided many outlets for people with unsavory intentions to fulfill their desires. The numbers racket was a pervasive and totally illegal gambling game, somewhat similar to today’s lottery, that was lead by “bankers” as they were called in the day. This game put lots of money in the pockets of these few bankers and, collectively, took money right out of the pockets of community members. It really is hard to say whether or not this was a beneficial practice. On one hand, notorious numbers bankers like Casper Holstein were extremely generous donators who arguably made contributions that were invaluable to the success of the community. However, if you look at how his money was obtained, it is impossible to ignore the fact that the money he was using came right out of the pockets of the people he was claiming to help! This glaring contradiction is something that should be carefully inspected before making a final judgement on the efficacy and ethicality of his actions. Personally, I take the stance that his actions were selfishly motivated, and this is proven by his reaction to his opponents who pointed out his illegal methods of obtaining his wealth. While he had mansions on Long Island and a car collection, the community-members whose money he stole were having a hard time even finding suitable work.

This weeks chapters, though extensive we’re also quite intriguing. They opened my eyes to some of the great history in this section of the city that I’ve been blindly living in for the past couple of months. Earlier in the book, the importance of social institutions was touched upon when talking about the construction of the Panama Canal, but chapter 4 really went in depth to elaborate upon this idea. Immigrating to a new country was not easy by any means for most Caribbean immigrants, especially considering all the resentment they received from native African Americans. However, there were a few places where the two groups got along seamlessly. One such social institution of particular importance was church. It makes sense that a strong unifying theme like religion can bring together such a broad group of people that may be of the same race, but have entirely different cultures. In fact, religion even helped a lot of the newly immigrated Caribbeans adjust to a new life in the states. I know from personal experience that Church can be a huge connection for many families. We would associate with people from all kinds of backgrounds, sometimes establishing permanent ties, and even going out afterwards to breakfast or some other event.Its just reassuring to think that admist all the antagonism between native and immigrant blacks, there were some areas where they could come together and socialize under a common theme.

Though I’ve learned a small bit about Marcus Garvey from history classes, it was really interesting to learn a great deal more about him and some of his ideals in chapter 7. He strongly advocated for a unified African movement. By many, he was seen as crazy, but to others, Garvey was seen as a powerful idealist with a plan for total African equality. However, I do believe that there is a fine line that must be drawn and this line was crossed just a few too many times by Garvey. I had never heard, nor would I have ever imagined, a man who advocated so strongly for African equality such as Marcus Garvey to cooperate with the Ku Klux Klan. In fact, some of what professor Lutton had told us in class actually startled me a good bit. I understand that Garvey had similar goals to the KKK,  but to identify with them is just not a very good look. The KlKK is known for violence and hatred towards Garvey himself, amongst other Africans, so surely there were other groups whom he could have chosen to collaborate with. Nonetheless, Garvey’s plan ultimately failed with his deportation back to Jamaica. In the end, he had a nice idea with a strong following, but I don’t think it ever could have actually become more than just that; an idea. As someone mentioned in class, there were just too many African Americans who were multiple generations old and felt stronger ties toward America, despite its many shortcomings, than they did towards Africa.

The only other chapter I really want to talk about is chapter 9. This was by far my favorite chapter. It is unfortunate that there was so much corruption associated with gambling due to its outlaw, because it seemed for the most part to have a very positive effect on the community. Especially in the case of Casper Holstein. Holstein was an avid contributor to philanthropy everywhere, from motivating young blacks to develop their abilities as writers to paying for college students’ expenses to sharing some of the joy with the hungry around the Holiday season. This system benefited not only all those involved in the “bank” but also the community, including a lucky middle class worker with high aspirations for the future who would occasionally win. One line that particularly struck out to me though  was “It is ironical but true that Negroes build things only to have them taken away and exploited by the white man.” This seemed very much the case with the numbers game that so powerfully influenced economics in Harlem. Perhaps if the game wasn’t outlawed, there could have been more protection placed upon the banks from mobsters to foster the business. Still, it was nice to read about some of the bankers who would stand up against the abuse of gangs such as did St. Clair. Her confidence and courage encouraged her business to grow and help all those involved without fear, Obviously the business helped mostly the wealthy bankers, but I feel that the overall positive effect it had on the community as a whole outweighed the negatives. Harlem has had quite a unique history that I had never previously known about but will now begin to recognize as I walk along its streets. The land I walk on now was and still is to an extent the cultural center for various different immigrant groups amongst which are the Caribbeans who played an integral part in forging Harlem’s history.

Religion played a major role in the lives of Caribbean immigrants and native African Americans. Churches became a social center for immigrants and natives alike. Due to this, a second generation Caribbean is more likely to marry a native born African American. What’s interesting is that when this occurs the native would modify the traditions of the Caribbean immigrant. Therefore, places that bring immigrants and natives together accelerates the process of assimilation. There are also many churches in Harlem, one in particular is the Black American Church. This church challenged and modified the culture of Caribbean immigrants. Black churches, however, were also viewed as a business rather than a place of worship. This is contributed to the fact that when compared to Caribbean churches it is far more dominant economically and politically.

Churches were not the only institution that had an impact in the Harlem community. Harlem’s  fraternal and benevolent associations which consisted of mainly members from the Caribbean and black American communities also played a role in Harlem. These institutions “provided mutual aid and also helped establish an individual’s social position and identity.” One particular association is called The Society of the Sons of New York. They recruited men in society that possessed the most respectable traits. For example, politicians, real estate speculators, and professionals. Benevolent associations provided members with health and death benefits. Fraternal orders are similar to benevolent associations because they “de-emphasize one’s ethnic background while promoting racial solidarity, self-help, and self-reliance.” Churches, benevolent associations, lodges and fraternal orders assisted Caribbean immigrants and southern migrants by familiarizing them with the community.

As more immigrants started to settle in Harlem a man by the name of Marcus Garvey appeared to spread his radical ideals. Garvey was born in Jamaica and founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) in Jamaica in 1912. UNIA was created to create a black nation in Africa by convincing African Americans to return to Africa. In 1916, Garvey settled in New York and created a UNIA chapter in Harlem. This chapter promoted the ideals of social, political, and economical freedom for blacks. In 1918, Garvey published a newspaper called Negro World to convey his message. This posed a threat to nativists because the press was transmitting radical ideas. African Americans also disliked Garvey because he was considered radical and they didn’t want to be grouped with him. In 1919, Garvey and UNIA launched the Black Star Line which was a shipping company that established trade between Africans in America, the Caribbean, South and Central America, Canada and Africa. The Black Star Line lead Garvey to be jailed due to mail fraud in 1923. In 1927 he was released and deported back to Jamaica. Garvey became the inspiration for black nationalism and he inspired other leaders such as Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr.

Other than religious institutions and political figures, there was another side of Harlem. Harlem was being overrun by numbers. These numbers or the “Number Playing Game,” became Harlem’s economy. The number operation consisted of a banker, collectors, controllers, and a legal staff. This was a planned out team because each role is in charge of a part of the operation. For instance, the collector is the ones who take the bets from customers, the controllers are the ones who gathered money and turned it in to the bank, and finally the legal staff is there to ensure the safety of all employees. The banker is the head of the operation because he arranges all political affiliations and pays all fines imposed on his employees. In order for a banker to be successful, he or she must have a good reputation. This means that the banker has to deal fairly and give back to the community. To play the numbers game, a player would pick a set of digits between 000 and 999. If they chose correctly they would win, if not then they lose. It is similar to the lottery we have today. The numbers game wasn’t limited to only African Americans. There are also white New Yorkers who play and give their money to a colored collector. This is interesting because when it comes to a game blacks and whites are treated equally, however, in reality whites come out superior. Race is more of a social implementation rather than a biological one.

The differences that caused discrimination between blacks and whites were also the causes of the animosity between the different ethnicities that were considered part of the black race. In the last few chapters, there were many interesting people mentioned that had different reactions to this situation. There were others that managed to build enterprises while not being affected by the divide at all. People that stood out to me were Marcus Garvey, Claude McKay, Madame Stephanie St. Clair, and Casper Holstein.

The idea for the mass return to Africa by Marcus Garvey was astounding. He did manage to get a large following that agreed with this idea, and to be proud of being African. It would also take a sane person a huge amount of courage to meet with the Klu Klux Klan, but I am guessing that fear was the smallest thing in his mind when he was closing in on the confrontation. Leading such a huge population to Africa would lead them back to an imperialistic government with there still being a lower class feeling suppressed. Creating a black-controlled economy however, was a great idea that was somewhat done with by the bankers in the numbers game.

Claude McKay was a Jamaican writer that wrote many pieces about alienation, both from native white Americans, and native black Americans. The first generation of black immigrants cared more about ethnic identity than race, thus creating the establishment that McKay found so unwelcoming. However from these experiences he started getting closer to other black ethnicities. Whether Caribbean or native black, they were still persecuted and greatly threatened in the race riots of 1919. He moved around America with a unit of many other black Americans that would protect each other from attacks. From his books, it is understood that through this experience and many others like this one, there was some level of fellowship that he established with the black community.

During the early 1900s the numbers game, or policy, established a new way of gaining economic capital. This game of chance was so irresistible that even the white community participated in it. There was a quote about white betters paying their debts to black collectors, which was an unbelievable idea at that time period. It was however unfortunate that such instances would only happen in policy, an illegal gambling ring. The profits from the bankers went towards so many different projects that improved the Harlem community. Madame Stephanie St. Clair, in order to protect her business, exposed police corruption to the public. The audacity she had when she confronted the Shultz gang was unbelievable.

Another influential banker was Panama Francis. He used his winnings to start the era of the “Negro League” and he became a major proponent of black involvement in baseball and boxing. The greatest patron however seems to be Casper Holstein. He was a patron of the arts and donator to schools, charities, political organizations, and students. Not only did he do that for the Harlem community, he also did it for the people in the Virgin Islands, and his native country Grenada. It is no wonder that he was praised as a messiah with all the help that he provided to the people that surrounded him. It was a shame that gangsters took him out of the numbers game, and that he eventually ended up as a poor man.

I think that these people deserve more recognition for what they have done to shape New York. Yes, some were considered radical, and others gained their profits through illegal means, but that should not define whom they were. Holstein funded The New Negro, and he also probably funded the education of many intellectuals that were prominent during the mid 1900s. The impact that these businesspeople have had is something that I am considering to research. Starting with so little yet being able to do so much is very inspiring.

“Blood Relations” by Irma Watkins-Owens followed a chronological order of the diaspora of the Caribbean islanders, especially their migration to Harlem, which gradually became one of the most culturally rich centers in the nation. Watkins through her writing, illustrates a timeline for the reader, which briefly enlightens the reader about the pivotal past events. Although there were numerous events leading up to the migration of Caribbean islanders to the U.S., there were even more issues when they finally arrived to the U.S. Unfortunately, the struggle didn’t end when they entered America, it actually just began. Although there were many motifs throughout the book, the most prevalent was the motif of social organization. Throughout the whole book, the black individuals suffer greatly, but they do so while being together. In chapter four, the importance of social networks wasn’t stated for the first time, it was actually emphasized again. Even before settling down, these individuals were constantly conglomerated into one unit, especially due to their nationality. This type of organization was not completely formed by some other higher power, but it was actually somewhat formed by the individuals themselves. And, the reason why they did this was simple, to survive. During these times, many hardships were present, especially economic hardships, thus the best solution was for the individuals to aid each other, because they were all in the same boat. Many instances were mentioned in the book, when the individuals aided each other due to their mutual suffering they faced. The very basic example was family support amongst their kin, which not only gave them hope and motivation, but helped them financially by working hard in horrible conditions such as the Panama Canal, just so that their family could go to the “land of opportunity.” Another example were the individuals that gave newly arrived immigrants a place to stay in Harlem, helping them in an extremely difficult time of their life. These actions of social conglomerations were extended, as mentioned in chapter four, into benevolent social organizations, fraternities, and most importantly churches.

These newly arrived Caribbean individuals faced hostility immediately when they arrived to America. The hostile forces included the black nativists along with the other population of individuals that emphasized racial segregation. These individuals were “cornered” by all the opposition, however, “cornered” with them were also the other Caribbean individuals, which allowed they to form bonds due to their mutual unfortunate predicaments along with the fact that they were the same kin/nationality. Due to the pre-existing ideas of segregation, and social connections, Marcus Garvey took an extraordinary approach albeit radical and extreme, but logical. Garvey’s approach acknowledged the importance of the social relationships that the black individuals have, which has allowed them to survive. Garvey publicly expressed his ideas, and let it be known to everyone explicitly that, they can form an utopia back in Africa, due to the current existing relationships the individuals have today. During these times of hardships and impassable obstacles, the suppressed individuals can only rely on its kin, because they were empathetic of their current situation, because they were “cornered” to the same “corner.” During these times, as mentioned in chapter five, the black individuals faced numerous political hardships. Comprising the majority of Harlem, these individuals still couldn’t bring about change due to the corruption that existed politically. Very few were capable of having their voice heard, but most of the times it was deemed irrelevant by the corrupt government. However, one of the strongest tools was the press, as mentioned in chapter ten. The press served as their most reliable medium to get their ideas across to the suppressed public living in Harlem. During these times, prominent writers such as Claude McKay, who publicized the true conditions of America, depicting it as a place that is both filled with opportunities and hardships. Example of these hardships included the corrupt government, which led to numerous other issues due to their inability to bring about reform. During these difficult times, the immigrant individuals were unable to secure adequate jobs, and were unable to voice their opinion, due to the fear of deportation because of their illegal actions getting into the country. These adversities were circumvented again, through the utilization of their social networks and support.

Reversing back all the way back to when the immigration between nearby islands began in the Caribbean, it was evident that the sole purpose was to improve their economical status. Following the dissolution of colonization, the Caribbean individuals sought to improve their financial standing the only way they knew how…by acquiring land. However, this was nearly impossible considering the supreme aristocrats had all the power, even though the colonization era was over. This brings us to the economical struggle in Harlem, which emphasizes the ongoing endeavors of these individuals. Most of the Caribbean islanders sharing this unfortunate predicament, brought about a strong social bond as mentioned many times previously in the book. Soon the “Numbers playing game,” came into effect, which was much like an illegal lottery. However, the importance was purely altruistic, unlike the definition of lottery we know today, which means if you win, you are then entitled to an extravagant life. This “lottery” was meant to help Harlem as a community, along with the individuals part of that community. Key examples of the leading altruistic figures that aided Harlem during this troublesome time were: Casper Holstein, Panama Francis, and Cuban Alexander Pompez. The individuals known as the bankers aided Harlem tremendously, and showed how social connections were so important for these individuals during this time.

The whole book comes down to the recurring motif of the development and utilization of these important social organizations amongst these alike national/kin individuals. The “numbers game” was deemed illegal, but this didn’t impede the black individuals, because they had no other better alternative. These individuals relied on each other to get through this troublesome time, and they connected so seamlessly because of their “Blood Relations.” These individuals with their similar situations and hardships, shared a bond because they were the same kin, nationality, and race. These defining characteristics form a relationship that was just as important as any other blood relation because these social conglomerations embodied the supportive families they needed. It all comes down to the numbers of individuals that played a vital part in this hectic game of life that each individual had to go through. It all depended on the alliances between the people, which was their only hope to get through this game of life. The whole social network was greater than the individuals that comprised it.

By: Mohamed Mohamed

After completing the book Blood Relations I began to ponder on the chapters. There were chapters that were somewhat a review and others that were just inspiring. However, the one chapter that I could not stop thinking about was chapter 9.

Chapter 9 of Blood Relation was about Harlem’s involvement with the ‘numbers game’. The numbers game can be compared to lottery; people were supposed to guess a three digit number that would win them a grand prize. This gambling business was illegal at the time and police were sent to Harlem to suppress it. Bankers, who often times kept their identity hidden to avoid arrest, controlled the ‘numbers game’. However, after successfully growing their business ‘underground’, the numbers game became very common despite its illegality. The bankers made a lot of money and therefore were able to influence people in office. They became very powerful individuals because the game gained tremendous popularity. With their money, bankers hired African Americans to help them. They also helped the African community in other ways. By investing their money in Harlem properties and businesses, bankers helped raise the community’s expectations about economic progress (p137). The idea was that they provided jobs and other opportunities for the African American community and at the same time the community gave back by further growing their business.

When I finished reading this chapter, I got the impression that these bankers were seen as the ‘good’ guys. As though saying what they were doing for Harlem helped the community greatly. However, what I notice is the bankers taking advantage of the community to grow their illegal business. The Bankers give part of their money back to the community and in doing so it is their way of flaunting their support. It shows that they care for the community and the people. However, this is all a businessman with a despicable business strategy. It is a strategy to use money to gain the respect and trust of Harlem and then in return increase loyal customers. All of it is a façade to keep the people playing the lottery game and help further grow their business.

The odds of winning the ‘numbers game’, like any gambling game, is very low. A person has a 1/1000 chance of guessing a three-digit number correctly. If a game requires a dollar to play and the winner gets 100$, that means for every 1000 players only one will win. The banker will collect 900$ and give the “winner” 100$. If you run the simulations in any case, you will find that the only true winner is the banker. Yet the book explains that ‘numbers game’ was very popular in Harlem community.

Today the lottery industry is one of the largest giants. From the 44 states that allow lottery, people spent an estimate of 68$ billion in 2013. People cannot seem to stop playing lotto. This is so because it is addictive and also because it is encouraged. Lottery is run by the state and in their advertisements playing lotto is portrayed as a way to give back to the community. For example, many lottery ads claim that a certain portion of the lottery money will be given towards education. Therefore, people are fooled to play in hopes of winning and in thinking that they are giving back to the community by playing. “Money in state budgets tends to move around a lot” so trying to focus money on one thing is nearly impossible. For example, North Carolina used 100$ million of lottery money to construct schools. However, this did not mean that the school construction budget has increase 100$ million more because while that money was flowing in, other money sources are flowing out. A portion of income taxes used to go to the school construction budget but that tax money went away and was substituted with lottery revenue (Oliver).

The lottery gives people hope. However, this hope is nothing but a façade. People in Harlem saw the ‘numbers game’ as an opportunity for “economic progress”; they saw it as hope (p137). Hope for better lives, hope to improve their circumstances, hope to finally compete with the white man, hope for progress but sadly it provided none of that. Lottery does nothing but change the course of money circulation. What Harlem has done is give this power to a handful of people and expected that the money stay circulating in Harlem. Now, some might claim that these individuals proved to be responsible because they did circulated the money in Harlem by investing in Harlem properties and businesses. Lottery money may directly improve one situation but it is at the same time indirectly harming and creating a more difficult situation somewhere else.

Finally, I would like to share this video that helped me in my mini research on lottery: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9PK-netuhHA

A common theme throughout Blood Relations was heavily focused upon in chapters four and five. This theme is that everyone belongs to something. In chapter four, we were introduced to the many different religious sects, benevolent societies and community gatherings that helped establish an identity for many of the incoming Caribbean immigrants and native southern blacks. I had some idea about the religious sects prior to reading this text as many different migrating peoples formed small communities based around religion all throughout history. What was completely new to me were all of the societies and brotherhoods that were at the disposal of many immigrants. To focus on a few, there were a couple societies focused on different states. Some examples were the Sons and Daughters of New York and the Sons and Daughters of Virginia. These two societies provided many southern migrants with different benefits, but they were both fairly discriminatory. For the Sons and Daughters of Virginia, members had to have been a Virginian by “birth or parentage” to become a part of the brotherhood. To me, this uniting of southern migrants felt like a way of native blacks trying to compete with Caribbean immigrants. By the late 1920s there were already many fraternities based around Caribbean countries of origin, such as the Bermuda Benevolent Society and the Grenada Mutual Association. These groups definitely did not want native blacks as members, leaving many southern migrants searching for their own source of community.

Although native blacks and Caribbean immigrants found it very easy to unite amongst themselves along ethnic and cultural backgrounds, both parties never could cross over and come together over political grounds. Differing political ideas did plenty to keep Harlem scrambled, but the gerrymandering of voting districts didn’t help and the outright refusal to allow some people to vote only worsened the situation. Something that came across as completely idiotic to me was the lack of effort to recruit native blacks to vote, at first. Many of the political machines that, at one point, ran New York did all that they could to indoctrinate incoming European immigrants and have them vote for their parties. Yet, there were plenty of Harlemites who were ready and willing to side with certain Tammany Hall politics, but since they were black, they were turned away at the voting booths.

Skipping ahead a couple of chapters, I would like to talk about the lottery. The New York State lottery that millions participate in weekly did not begin until 1967. It was only the third modern US Lottery at the time, behind Puerto Rico and New Hampshire. As discussed in chapter nine, a betting game called “numbers” or “policy” was blowing up Harlem. People from all different walks of life would chip in their spare change in hopes of having their random number come up big and being able to walk away with a few dollars. Now, these betting rings were not necessarily legal, and for the most part, they weren’t run by the friendliest of people, specifically Dutch Schultz. Yet, many of the Harlem bakers who headed various numbers rings, such as Alexander Pompez and Casper Holstein, did so with good intentions. Pompez, known mostly for his owning of a local New York Cuban baseball team, supported many communities with his athletic endeavors. He built sporting complexes for his community and even bought the Dyckman Oval, one of the largest sports arenas in New York. Casper Holstein gave away a lot of his money to the community as well. Holstein would donate hundred of baskets of food and gifts at Christmastime to many different charities while also giving money to the UNIA. Select individuals no longer run lotteries illegally, but many of these bankers’ actions had a significant impact on our lottery today. A large portion of the NYS lottery earnings goes to supporting our school systems, mirroring the many men and women who were put through college on “numbers” winnings.

Ch. 4

Chapter 4 discusses the role that churches and other associations played in Harlem’s development and community building. Churches were becoming the fastest growing institutions because they were attracting large numbers of newcomers and current residents. As a result, they became the social centers of immigrant communities. Through Caribbean immigrant congregations and American black congregations, there was some intersection between the two ethnic groups. This was because members of one group usually participated in the others’ activities and even celebrations. These churches also served to perpetuate the traditions of immigrants’ home countries (including weddings and funerals). Clergy used the congregations and the immigrant community as a base for leadership. For example, pastors were politically active; however, some criticized them saying that they turned the church into a business. Women played an important role in the church, such that congregations that did not have many women often failed to thrive. Fraternal and benevolent associations emphasized immigrants’ social positions and identity. They also aimed to stabilize life and promote upward mobility for immigrants. The fraternal associations, especially, often afforded prestige to their members. Some fraternal associations (like the Society of the Sons of New York) only accepted members native to certain areas. These associations provided sick and death benefits at a time when insurance companies refused to extend coverage or provided very limited coverage to blacks.

I found several interesting points in this chapter.

The author mentions that “membership [in a lodge or fraternal order] usually conferred a large, automatic constituency for anyone aspiring to leadership” (56). It was interesting to see how one could grow a “fan base” just by joining a club. It just served to elevate the fact that these associations were tickets to mobility and prestige.

It was written that native African-American congregations had Caribbean immigrants in (often) high positions such as bishop. I originally had the impression that both groups were mutually exclusive in the area of religion. It seems like that is not the case and that the relationship between native and foreign-born blacks is even more complex than I originally thought.

The services that black Americans conducted in their churches “challenged and broadened” the experiences of Caribbean immigrants. For any immigrant coming to a new country, he/she will always go through a learning experience. In this case, it is perfectly understandable that the black Americans’ so-called “shouting churches” shocked black immigrants. This reminded me of how my parents would always tell me stories about what they learned when they first came to Canada and then (with me) to the United States. They would say that the things they saw “broadened” (the exact same word) their experiences when they first came here. So, I connected with this part of the chapter on a more personal level.

One thing that I found shocking (yet somewhat amusing) was the restrictions present in benevolent associations and how this contributed to their so-called “clannishness” (66). For example, the future president of the woman’s auxiliary of the United Sons of Georgia was “disgraced and ousted” just because she was born on the “boundary line of Georgia.” Yet, she lived in Georgia throughout her childhood. This seems somewhat harsh to me. However, these actions make sense: These groups are very tight-knit and exclusive. They seem to have the goal of elevating their (for, obviously, lack of a better word) “native-ness,” such that anyone not from their native land is considered an intruder.

Ch. 5

Chapter 5 describes the struggle of Harlem residents to achieve a degree of political autonomy. Harlem had a tense political atmosphere because of a structure based on alliances and political antagonisms. Politics were based on a system of patronage. Some people (like Ferdinand Q. Morton) were able to rise to positions high enough to improve the political position of blacks. However, they made little progress in these positions. There was eventually a shift in Harlem from the Republicans to the Democrats. This was because the native black leadership of the Republican Party was not particularly welcoming of foreign-born blacks. Some immigrant and native blacks cooperated with each other to gain recognition for their race. They preferred racial solidarity to ethnic solidarity. There was a greater awareness of Harlem’s diversity, particularly because there were more Caribbean people visible on the streets. There was also a growth of new business centered on the import and export of Caribbean products as well as more ethnic-based organizations. In the post-war years, there was a negative view of foreign-born blacks by native blacks. This may have been the result of a growing tide of nativism during and after World War I as well as the Red Scare. Not many (“a negligible number” of) Caribbean immigrants were qualified to vote. Citizenship was often viewed practically, as a means of improving one’s economic and social standing. Another reason is that the Caribbean immigrant felt right at home here in the United States with the presence of people from his/her own home country. Thus, naturalization was also seen as unnecessary and meant very little to most. Despite this, some already-naturalized professionals made progress in Harlem’s political system. For example, they succeeded in integrating the district clubs. However, Harlem’s subordinate political position contributed to tense relations between native-born and immigrant blacks. This was reinforced by a 1917 redistricting that weakened Harlem even more.

I was surprised by how tense relations were between black Republicans and Democrats:

“During local political campaigns, mobs in San Juan Hill knocked Tammany Hall supporters from their stepladders and wagons, pelted some with rotten cabbage and fruit, and ran others from the street corners” (77).

Although this all seemed a little to extreme to me, it serves to highlight the animosity that many blacks felt toward each other. Maybe, it was attributed to feelings of betrayal considering the initial emphasis on racial solidarity. Did they feel betrayed by the fact that some of their “own” defected to the other party?

However, later in the post-war years, we see shifts toward the other end in terms of racial solidarity:

“There was a causal connection between the American attitude toward foreigners in general and the American Negro’s attitude toward the West Indian Negro” (81).

Now, it seems that the focus is on ethnic solidarity rather than racial. When speaking about Marcus Garvey, critics focused on his “intrusive foreign status” (81). This nativist attitude may have stemmed, not from fear but, from the notion that immigrant blacks were taking away native blacks’ opportunities for advancement.

Ch. 7

Chapter 7 talks about Marcus Garvey and the race versus ethnicity issue that surrounded his activities. Garvey initially came to America to raise funds for an educational institute. However, he eventually ended up establishing an organization called the Universal Negro Improvement Association (or UNIA) in Harlem. He established this organization to provide a channel for improvement for blacks. Garvey himself was acknowledged by many to be an excellent orator, well-known for his “militant discourse.” The Negro World was one of the UNIA’s publications. It was self-supporting and hired numerous black workers in Harlem in a time where these same people could not get any jobs. However, critics of Garvey used his West Indian/non-U.S. citizen status against him. For example, W.E.B. du Bois described the UNIA as a “West Indian movement.” Numerous government departments sought for an excuse to imprison and/or deport him. The criticism of Garvey became so sharp that some in the black press resorted to name-calling and derogatory remarks. This grew even more after Garvey’s meeting with the Ku Klux Klan, an organization that stirred negative emotions in the African-American community. Garvey was eventually imprisoned on a single count of mail fraud; however, many (including his harshest critics) believed that this was too severe a penalty for so simple a charge. He was eventually deported back to Jamaica in 1927.

I am surprised at the lengths that the government went through to have Garvey arrested. Having informants following him and tracking his every move seems a little too extreme. However, it seems that this was (in the eyes of the government) the sensible thing to do, given his reputation for “militant discourse.” It seems that he was seen as a threat to the stability of the country and to some people’s power. Maybe there was fear of revolution among blacks? I understand Garvey’s slogan of “Back to Africa.” He may have been trying to promote unity using common roots. However, it seemed to backfire as it instead divided many people.

Speaking of this division, I was also surprised at how the issue surrounding Garvey divided people along ethnic lines. Originally, we saw an emphasis on racial solidarity. However, it seems that the issue with Garvey made this seemingly nonexistent. With all the name-calling and bickering, I found it hard to believe that there was once a semblance of racial solidarity.

Ch. 9

Chapter 9 describes what was considered an illegal activity yet has been regarded as a social phenomenon in early-1900s Harlem: the “numbers” or “policy” game. In this game, the player took a chance that they could pick a series of three digits that would match the same set of three numbers appearing anywhere (most likely, a combination of the win, place, and show bets at a local racetrack). The player got a “hit” if this set appeared at the agreed-upon location. The heads of the numbers operation (the bankers) were in a position to make good money because hits were relatively rare. However, the bankers actually invested the money they received into Harlem property, charities, and other ventures. This was because those betting expected the bankers to put the money into a worthwhile cause. The game was banned in 1901 but was revitalized around 1914 by immigrants from Cuba and Central America, where the game was popular. Its popularity was grounded in poor economic conditions in Harlem. The thought of winning a huge sum of money compelled many to play. Some of the larger bankers, like Stephanie St. Claire and Casper Holstein, were huge economic, social, and political forces in Harlem. In the press, there was inconsistency in reporting about numbers (for example, in using the names of bankers in articles). It is also worth mentioning that white bankers were attacked freely. In the end, however, it seems that numbers only helped the black bankers, as they received all the money and were the only ones who held enough influence in the community.

Numbers reminds me of today’s lottery. People pick a series of numbers in the hopes that the numbers will be drawn. However, few win because (like numbers) the “chances of winning are [very slight]” (138). People who play put in millions of dollars into lottery tickets, only to never get any of it back. The only difference between today’s lottery and numbers is that today’s lottery is legal and more centralized. This was a comparison that came to my mind while I was reading. I was surprised by the similarities that I thought of.

The seriousness (and sometimes outlandishness) of the numbers game was something that struck me. The author mentioned that a banker by the name of Panama Francis “kept his money in nail kegs and suitcases in a cellar guarded by three Belgian police dogs” (139). It is also mentioned that the money he received as a banker enabled him to loan “the government of Grenada $500,000, on which he collected 4 percent interest” (139).

While I was reading this, another thought came into my head: We don’t usually consider people participating in illegal rings as having “unselfish generosity” (144). To me, numbers seems different from any other illegal activity I have studied in history. Here, the ultimate goal of those controlling it is positive. The bankers contribute their money toward worthwhile causes. We have St. Clair with her crusades against police harassment and brutality and Holstein with his generosity toward many causes, including the arts. I thought that this was noteworthy given the negative reputation that people running illegal activities have.

Ch. 10

Chapter 10 discusses the role writers played in recounting and even affecting intraracial relations in Harlem. Much of the writing during this period focused on the experiences of various groups, including those of immigrants. Some focused on forms of protest in response to various community matters. Others (like Claude McKay) focused on race consciousness and identity. Still, others (like Rudolph Fisher focused on stereotypes surrounding black immigrants. Immigrants also made many contributions to a “New Negro” literary Renaissance. Some of these writers included George Reginald Margetson, Eulalie Spence, and Amy Ashwood Garvey. Claud McKay (like some others) was connected to the press through their writings in numerous publications. J.A. Rogers emphasized black history in his writings, especially in his book, From Superman to Man. Amy Jacques-Garvey subscribed to the feminism of the era, demanding equal opportunity for women. Thus, the writings of the era not only focused on race issues but also the diversity of the time as well as protests for equal rights.

It was stated that, in McKay’s Home to Harlem, the main character realized that his identity “has been redefined for him by his fellow blacks as well as by white Americans” (151). To me, this does not only apply to black immigrants of the era but also to all immigrants of any era. There is a certain identity (i.e. stereotype) that an immigrant from a particular place is expected to subscribe to. Although this expectation was more open in the past, I believe that it still exists today albeit subconsciously in the minds of people.

It was stated that immigrant columnist Edgar M. Grey wrote a piece called “Dr. Pickens Is Too Black” to protest color divisions among African-Americans. Although the title would be considered (very) crude humor today, it was certainly a serious issue back then. I was shocked by the title when I first saw it. (I actually read it twice to make sure I read it correctly.) However, this reaction is due in part to the fact that if this were written today, it would ignite a firestorm of controversy. However, back when it was written, it seems to have been acceptable and appropriate for the issue Grey was discussing.

Ch. 11

The author uses chapter 11 to give the reader a summary of the findings presented throughout the book: all the way from the influx of Caribbean immigrants in Harlem to Harlem politics to the writings of the New Negro. The author says that although interactions between native blacks and foreign-born blacks did not necessarily lead to integration between the two groups, it did serve to provide a platform for the exchange of ideas and institutions that made Harlem a center for blacks.

Throughout the book, I noticed several ideas that were being repeated, especially that of kinship networks. It served to show how the experiences of both native and immigrant blacks paralleled each other in some way or another. Native-born and immigrant blacks are not entirely different from each other. They have shared the same experiences and share even the same roots. It is true that there has not been a true integration of both groups, and there is still some animosity. However, it can be said that the interactions of both of these groups with each other have led to a positive exchange of ideas that has profoundly changed the dynamics of their relationship.

Overall, I was pleased with this book. The author presented the arguments and evidence in a concise and interesting manner. I appreciated the use of stories to help the reader visualize some of the points that were made and the events that occurred. I also liked how each individual topic was separated into its own chapter instead a single time period per chapter (like in other history-related books). I believe that this allowed the reader to concentrate on one topic per chapter and learn the details associated with it rather than be confused by a hodgepodge of topics per chapter. In conclusion, I really enjoyed this book.

As the book progressed, Blood Relations begins to take a deeper look into the political, economic and social status of African-Americans and Caribbean people living in Harlem. Ch 4 showed the power that churches, benevolent societies and fraternal orders had. Political mobility began with the church because at the time darker skinned men and especially women were not allowed to have a large say in politics. I thought it was interesting to see the development of the residents in Harlem as they came together to push for having a political voice to represent their interests. Amongst the differences they faced, it marked a transition and represented the growing power of the community.

Marcus Garvey emerged as a great voice in the ’20’s in Harlem. I personally don’t recall learning about him previously, but I found his ideas (even though a bit radical) to be very interesting. Ch 7 explored his push for this “back to Africa” idea, which in my opinion made sense logically but would fail practically speaking. The idea of bringing everyone of African decent back together to live on their own terms and rise as a powerful country is great and very gripping but I think it divided the people. Such a radical movement will get strong agreement or disagreement and in his case, along with the influence from the government, Garvey was not able to get enough momentum. As we discussed in class, Africa-Americans and West Indians, for example, had different connections to Africa and generally it was distant and greatly a part of the past. That is where his plan generally failed, in my opinion. I think a lot of people would not be so willing to immigrate again, especially to a place that was not as industrialized and could have resulted in no job opportunities. Many people wouldn’t want to leave, unless they had been greatly motivated in being pioneers and starting a great change, or if their situation was extremely poor in NYC.

Chapter 9, as the title “The Underground Entrepreneur” suggests, discusses the “numbers playing game” which I thought was interesting. I found it to be a small uniting force amongst the residents of Harlem and later on others who played the game. I liked how the author introduced the big name bankers and entrepreneurs such as Pompez, and St.Clair.  I thought it unified people by finding a common ground regardless of class and status. It was also a clever way to make money for the bankers, which led to their accumulation  of thousands of dollars, and even millions, which led to issues with gangs but also led to charitable donations.

The issue of separation amongst different black immigrants, which was mentioned earlier in the book, was further developed in Ch 10. I found it a little sad that different ethnic groups used propaganda and others were taught to discriminate. However, the differences did contribute to great literature and the Harlem Renaissance.

The last six chapters of Blood Relations: Caribbean Immigrants and the Harlem Community, 1900-1930, written by Irma Watkins-Owens, were very interesting and filled me in on many things that I did not know about the history of Harlem. Chapter 4 talked about how the evolving Harlem community was comprised of a myriad of social networks that were linked together by churches, benevolent and fraternal societies and lodges. These social institutions played a significant role in helping Caribbean and Southern immigrants become assimilated into New York City lifestyle during the early part of the twentieth century. Many times black clergymen and society leaders were responsible for making the Caribbean immigrants in their congregations feel more at home. They were links between native and immigrant blacks. Chapter 5 discussed the tensions that arose within the Harlem community based on differing political ideologies. The relationship between immigrants from the Caribbean and the South and native African Americans was not the best. African Americans were envious of West Indian immigrants because of the appeal they had to white people. West Indians were viewed as foreign and radical by African Americans. They did not want anything to do with West Indian immigrants and hated the fact that people thought that African Americans and West Indian immigrants fell in the same category of people. Chapter 7 focuses on Marcus Garvey, a Jamaican leader who caused a spur in the Harlem community by advocating for a strong, united African community that would create a powerful, industrialized, and advanced society in Africa. He encouraged his followers to move back to Africa. Chapter 9 talks about the organization and the importance of the numbers game in Harlem’s economy. Lastly, chapters 10 and 11 tie the content of the book together by discussing the effects that Caribbean immigrants had in Harlem society.

Religion played an important role in the lives of the Caribbean immigrants in Harlem. Practicing their faith was one of the most common ways that Caribbean immigrants maintained a link with their native countries. These immigrants introduced their own denominations to the Harlem community (and American society). Caribbean immigrant churches perpetuated island traditions. This made the assimilation process easier for Caribbean immigrants. However, we must also take into consideration the effect that the interaction between New York City native blacks and immigrants blacks had on services. The manner in which most black Americans conducted their religious services broadened the cultural experience of some immigrants used to the more Anglican and Catholic services. In other words, many Caribbean immigrants affiliated themselves with black churches because of the way the faithful conducted their religious services. Black churches have an interesting and unique charisma that more traditional denominations like the Catholic Church tend to lack. They appeal to the culture and traditions that black people have. Social organizations, religious institutions, a collective economy amongst immigrants and kin networks all allowed black immigrants to adapt to a new environment. They provided immigrants with social, moral and economic support, three of the most important types of support that a person who is suffering needs and can receive. There were many organizations that helped immigrants make progress in life. Churches and other social institutions often served as places where native blacks and immigrants got together and shared cultures and traditions. However, I must also agree with Watkins-Owens when she says that, “Churches, benevolents, and fraternal orders were also class- and gender-identified institutions”(74). In other words these social and religious institutions served both to unite and divide the different groups within the Harlem community.

Chapter 5 focuses on the political side of Harlem and the struggles for its autonomy. Harlem was faced with a lot of internal “conflict” between immigrants and natives. But it also did not have a voice in the politics of the city, the state or the nation. There was no black representation in government. Between 1900 and 1930, immigrants and native blacks decided to take action to solve this. However, there were many occasions where the immigrants and black natives did not reach a consensus and thus there were several disputes between both groups. During this time period, the control of local political clubs was largely restricted to upper class people in Harlem, both native born and immigrant. The regular political parties were not outlets for divergent political ideas. If people wanted to mobilize themselves in the political arena they needed to have initiative and contacts. Political leaders were often financially secured and Americanized. Thus many of them did not even know what issues plagued the lives of newly arrived immigrants who were trying to adapt themselves to a new lifestyle. However, despite the growing number of black elected officials in Harlem, neither black immigrants nor black natives benefitted from this. No community-improvement projects were created to aid Harlem. Overcrowded conditions, inadequate health care, deportations, high rents, dilapidated rat- and roach-infested housing, police brutality, prostitution and racketeering continued to be some of the main problems in Harlem. Political institutions like Tammany Hall were created. They advocated for the naturalization of Caribbean immigrants so that they could vote. However, Tammany Hall was corrupted and did not put Harlem residents’ requests before theirs. They wanted support from immigrants so that they could continue to become more powerful.

Chapter 7 focuses on the life of Marcus Garvey and his impact in Harlem. He was of Jamaican descent and was deported back to Jamaica technically because of mail fraud. However, in reality U.S. officials deported him because he was considered dangerous to the American government. He supported creating a strong, united, and powerful African community that would work together to create an economically and politically powerful African industrial empire. His dream was for all people of African descent throughout the world to move back to Africa and develop a society that would be powerful enough to compete with other powers like Europe and the United States. He convinced many blacks by telling them that the white man denies them many rights. He was very explicit about what basic human rights were denied and then afterwards motivated people to agree with him by saying that in the African society that he would lead, all would be equal. No disparity would exist. However, as we discussed in class, many socioeconomic disparities existed amongst people of African descent. Some of these disparities were created because not everyone grows up in circumstances that allow them to become people with important and influential roles. Lack of money, lack of social stability within the family unit, and many other things that come from living in a specific environment creates disparity. The idea of physical appearance also comes into play. Garvey wanted the African/black community in Harlem to have their own economy, press, political organization, jobs and other things so that the community could gain enough strength and power to move back to Africa. He also stressed racial purity, disagreeing with the idea of black people marrying people of other races. I found his meeting with Ku Klux Klan very odd but understandable. Like Professor Lutton said in class, he must have admired them for their advocacy of racial purity. But I thought that his idea that all white people deep down were members of the KKK is crazy. I understand that as dark-skinned human beings living during that time period him and his followers must have had many terrible experiences with white racists, but he took it too far. Although I do not agree with his ideas at all and know for sure that this would never have been possible, I do understand why he would take this stance in the first place. Like Dr. King advocated for the idea of integration, Garvey advocated for the idea of moving back to Africa and creating an advanced society. At the end of the day, acts of racism on behalf of many whites (causing a lot of tension) must have been terrible to experience. White Americans feared that his preaching and advocacy would cause turmoil in American society because black people would rebel against the social norm. So in the end he was sent back to Jamaica.

Chapter 9, “The Underground Entrepreneur,” discusses the organization and the importance of the numbers game in Harlem’s community. This game sustained an underground economy, which allowed for the social mobility and the employment of many people in Harlem. Bankers played a very important role in financing many community projects. These were the people that others went to when they had an issue. Usually when people have problems with their society they go to the government. But as we read in the previous chapters, black elected officials often cared more about gaining prestige and power than actually helping out their communities. Many times when a banker became extremely successful economically, he would give back to the community by aiding those who needed it the most. Holstein was one of these bankers. He made a lot of money from numbers and decided to give back to the community. He gave to the poor and needy and even supported organizations that worked for the bettering of Harlem. Holstein, along with other benevolent bankers, was respected by the community as race people. Watkins-Owens also describes how even after black bankers had been exposed and harassed by city authorities, they were still respected by the black community. Madame Stephanie St. Clair is an excellent example of this. She fought the penetration of white gangsters into the Harlem numbers business and the rampant police corruption. Many Harlem residents viewed her with so much admiration. She was persistent at demonstrating how unfair the system was to blacks. Interestingly enough, numbers playing was not limited to the working or elite classes of people. People from all social classes and stages in life participated. It was a way of getting money that working at the menial jobs available to the blacks could not compare. The illegality of playing numbers did not stop people from playing it. This shows how desperate many were to make ends meet.

Chapters 10 and 11 discuss the overall impact that Caribbean immigrants had in Harlem. Chapter 10 focuses on artists, poets and writers whose art impacted Harlem culture. One of the poets Watkins-Owens mentions is Claude McKay. His writing portrayed the immigrant experience in New York City. McKay’s point of view is very interesting and I am sure that it appeals to many immigrants. He tries to get at the idea that although New York City (and the U.S.) is a place full of race issues, it ultimately is the place where people from all over the world could go to make progress in life. It is the land of opportunity. Although he has the optimistic view of an immigrant, McKay still reveals many of the issues that immigrants encounter when they migrate to New York City. Chapter 10 also talks about the role the press had in Harlem. It is very important to note that the press spread many ideas throughout the community and gathered people together as one in many occasions to advocate or fight against a certain idea or notion. The reality is that Caribbean immigrants played a huge role in the shaping of twentieth century New York. The immigration of foreigners to the U.S. has allowed Americans, especially those residing in multiculturalist cities to be open-minded and accepting of people from different cultures.