This articles connects most of the central themes in this class. The Caribbean community, as stated in the article, personifies transnationalism, which can be defined as forming a community, usually constructed by family networks, internationally. Transnationalism is a product of globalization, the movement of people and goods/services ‘freely’ across borders. Transnationalism has social, political, and economic aspects, all of which are facilitated through the use of technology. First, the social aspect contains changing identities and keeping connecting with family. When families move to new places, they are combatted with belonging to a new home, while trying to maintain cultural ties or identity. These families of the diaspora often form niches in new societies to interact/ assist with people of similar background and issues; however, these niches are not isolated and usually correspond with the new society’s people of similar socio-economic- racial class. Families who can afford to travel back to the homeland often do so to keep their identity and freshen ties with family. Family stay connected with distant relatives through the use of phone, internet, or mail, somewhat closing the otherwise substantial distance. A major factor that motivates people to leave the Caribbean is the lack of opportunity. People travel globally in order to support their families throughout the diaspora. The type of financial support is called remittance.This support network is called a trust network because it is less formal of a business transaction and mostly between friends and family. People maintain strong bonds to cement social bonds, as well as have a financial, or potential financial support system. Politically, transnationalism raises many questions. It raises the question of citizenship, as many Caribbean people live outside of the Caribbean but still have economic, political, and social standing. In new societies, as well, where the Caribbean population is usually a small but growing faction, amassing political leverage where they settle. Also, as globalism progresses, people move more but there is this after effect in which people become more nationalistic and borders become more rigid. People want to feel like own or belong to something as a sense of home or sense of stability in the future seem to dissipate.

This week’s article discussed Trinidadian immigrants who returned to Trinidad after living out of the island for multiple years. Specifically, this article focuses on one of the biggest topics of this class: Transnationalism. Firstly, the article analyzes how family influences migrants to maintain ties with their home and thus form a transnational identity. Family ties back in the homeland can be formed due to child rearing, where a family member is caring for an migrant’s children. Many times, family ties are maintained between a parent remaining in the homeland and the child who migrated to start a better life. Furthermore, a transnational relationship between a parent and child usually includes the transfer of money, as the child, once supported by the parent, now returns the favor by sending hard earned money back to the homeland. Transnational ties also include those with the community. Migrants going abroad could maintain ties with friends and people they used to live amongst. What this does is keep the migrant in touch with his old community so that if they return, it would seem as if they never left. Many times, migrants who do not keep in touch return home to find that they are seen as strangers and that they do not belong. Migrants who do keep in touch with their community usually return home multiple ties. In the past, this was difficult to maintain, but with the cheap cost of travel, it is now a possibility for almost everyone. Furthermore, traveling to and from the homeland allowed people to develop dual citizenships. This causes migrants to be involved in affairs with their both their affiliated countries. One main affair is that migrants can own land in their birth land and can thus return their later in their lives. This article also discusses the idea that it may be hard for immigrants to return to their homeland even if they maintained ties.  This is because immigrants maintain an image of how their country of origin was like when they lived. When they see how their country has changed, they continue to maintain their old image.

In conclusion, I have enjoyed taking this Macaulay seminar. I was previously oblivious to anything having to do with the Caribbean Islands but the class has opened my eyes to many issues surrounding the Caribbean people, and other immigrants as well.

Thinking about the immigration policy, the United States has always struggled with immigrants. Many people believe that immigrants are using up the country’s resources and taking opportunities from natives. However, such statements are highlighting that people in the United States are struggling to get by and thus there is a general detest for anyone who also needs aid. I continue to believe that anyone in the United States is given the same opportunities, although some may receive more than others, however it is whether you take these opportunities or not that dictates your future and decides whether you struggle or live comfortably. People born in the U.S. should not hold a hatred of immigrants considering they are living in an advanced nation that allows them to accomplish anything. However, many times people do not take what this country has offered since their birth and they blame others for their shortcomings. Immigrants coming here will take full advantage of the opportunities others haven’t taken and they deserve to. Personally, I am thankful that my family did struggle to live in Lebanon, however I know of people who did struggle to get by and who lost family members to war. Coming to countries like the U.S., these people, who were never privileged, work hard to earn the rewards available to them to better their family’s lives. Reason why the United States should tighten its immigration policy should only regard population problems or illegal activity, however it shouldn’t be due to immigrants taking opportunities that others had since birth.

The issue of the Mediterranean migration is one that must be taken into careful consideration. Thousands (60,000) have fled from their countries due to government crisis or extreme financial hardship (Taylor). These people have managed to get passed numerous checkpoints, travel long distances with limited supplies, and get on compacted ships that will help take them across the Mediterranean. These people have risked everything, it is without a doubt that these migrants are desperate for a change. Many have already died in the process of immigrating. About 1,800 are reported dead (Taylor). An article claims that the death toll of migrants in the mediterranean has reached closed to the numbers from 2014 and the peak of the migration season has not yet started. European countries are giving some aid, however many neglect these migrants because they are uninterested in taking care of them as citizens. 60,000 people is a large number of people for countries like Italy to intake. They believe that if such a high number of migrants enter the country then economic stability is at risk.

After reading the articles about the Mediterranean crisis it became clear to me that the only solution is for European nations to accept these migrants. Although the number of migrants is a large sum, the other solutions such as improving the situation in foreign countries is nearly impossible. There are many European nations that are in need of migrant importation. Such nation includes Germany. Germany has many job opportunities. Over the years, it statistics have shown that the German population has been declining. The genuine German race are dieing much more frequent than the birth rate. Therefore, a nation like Germany can, without a doubt, take a large portion of migrants without noticing a negative impact in their economy. In fact, an improvement of the German economy can be the result from a large intake of migrants. The migrants will help speed up production in the nation.

There are many wonderful images I found in an article online. The images emphasize the struggle that the Mediterranean migrants are undergoing in order to search for a happier life.

http://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2015/05/the-mediterranean-migrant-crisis-risking-everything-for-a-chance-at-a-better-life/392957/————————>>Check it out

Whenever people migrate to a new country, often times there is a thought of returning home, whether it is a fleeting moment or an end goal. People travel to countries such as the United States with working visas, make money, and return home to support their families. Families are a big reason people return to the native countries. Other reasons involve retirement in the home country, opening a business, or just returning back to an environment that is familiar.

Many immigrants return home to continue supporting their families. While one parents stays with the kids, another will go work in another country, and return home with money. Sometimes children are sent to the native countries for child rearing. They are raised by relatives, or sometimes are sent for schooling in the native country and then to large cities overseas for higher-level education. Constant trips back home also encourage social networks between friends, community members and relatives. This gives the immigrants the flexibility to return home and have people to turn to. Keeping in touch with the neighborhood allows for migrants to be aware of their towns. This in turn gives them the flexibility to stay in local politics. Also, for example, if someone plans to return home and start a store, they would need the support of the community. Often times if a migrant does not keep in touch with the events of the community, they will return home to find a town much different than what they left behind. This makes moving back much more difficult than the utopian and nostalgic memories they had.  Forgetting what its like at the hometown will make transitioning from a high paced cosmopolitan city to a low paced town difficult if all the person has to go off of were happy memories.

Dual citizenship and networks are a part of the frequently discussed idea of strategic flexibility. The opportunity to live in multiple places opens doors in terms of jobs and social connections. Migrants can choose from several locations and move around to better jobs and better living arrangements. With modern technology it is incredibly easy to keep in touch with relatives that are far away.  The connection with the homeland allows for freedom for a better life. In cases where migration does not work out, people will need somewhere to go, and it makes it very easy to return if a community is willing to take you in.

The article for this week along with our class discussion was interesting and really touched me on a personal level. The article looked at Trinidadian migrants who return to Trinidad after living abroad for several years. This article aims at showing the existence and effects of transnationalism, including the effect of transnationalism on the country of origin. The article uses the experience of these Trinidadian migrants to make certain generalizations about immigration as a whole. This article analyzes several areas. The first one is the transnational family and life-course issues. Family factors can influence an immigrant to maintain connections with his/her homeland. Child rearing, filial loyalty and sickness are some of many things that can influence people to travel and remain abroad for a period of time. Transnational community relationships and the idea of being a global citizen cause people to form and keep transnational ties. These ties are made much stronger with the fact that there is cheap air transportation. It is these repetitive and constant visits that prepare people to return to Trinidad. Constantly travelling back and forth has made people develop dual citizenship with both the United States and their country of origin. These people will become involved in affairs of their current country of residence as well as their country of birth. Land ownership at the place of birth has also motivated many people to return to their homeland at a later age. Many Caribbean people travel to the United States to work very hard for a long period time with the idea that they will eventually go back to their country of origin for their retirement. However, the land that they remember is no longer the same, causing many people to feel frustration when they go back.

The term, “strategic flexibility” was very important in this article. It is with regards to future migration opportunities. This article also touches on the idea that it is often times hard for immigrants to go back to their homeland despite the fact that they maintain transnational ties. As I mentioned before, immigrants tend to have the image of how their country of origin was like when they lived there in mind and even if they discover that the country of origin made drastic changes since they left, they still do not change that mindset. Thus many face frustrations when they go back and observe the changes. If the change is for the worst or for the best, immigrants will still feel awkward and frustrated because over the years they have gotten used to the American system.

In conclusion, I am so grateful and honored to have taken this Macaulay seminar. It has really opened up my mind to many issues and ideas with regards to immigration of not only Caribbean people but of everyone in general. This reading was a fitting conclusion to our ongoing discussions on transnationalism and migrant networks. What is even more interesting to me is to read about how there have been immigrants that have been stripped of their ethnic names and identities when coming to America, almost erasing any way of future generations of being able to reconnect with the past. That is why we have many people who identify as American and do not have any unique cultural practices.

With regards to immigration policy, I think that we are really on a tough spot here in the United States. There are many different points of view. Coming from a family of immigrants, all I can say is that we do not come to this country to take advantage of its resources and opportunities and then leave. Instead, we want to make our lives in America and move on, making progress on the ladder of social mobility. The phrase it does not matter where you come from but where you go comes to mind. Also, the fact that many people are still immigrating today shows that the world we live in has a lot of disparity and all people look for is to be on the good side rather than on the floor begging for food.

Its finally the end of the semester, and what better way to end it than with a paper about returning home? The discussion in class was very insightful. I never would’ve imagined that this article on returning home could direct the discussion towards a greater world problem. While its true that there are many problems in the world, its not impossible to fix. In our discussion, it was repeatedly mentioned that world powers keep their grips on foreign countries through financial interactions. An industry in a third world country being completely controlled by other more powerful countries is not uncommon. It is really frustrating sometimes to see countries reaping the benefits from a poorer country, but doing nothing when the poorer country is in crisis. Why can’t there be a relation between countries where both countries can benefit? Why is is so difficult to establish such a system? I think it is because of human’s natural selfishness. A country wouldn’t just help another country if it doesn’t perceive any immediate advantage.

I want to say that China is on the right track when it comes to international relations. Right now, China is trying to develop economically and industrially at an insane pace. However, maintaining this growth requires resources that China doesn’t have. In the past, Empires or nations that needed to maintain growth relied on conquest to obtain the resources they needed. The British Empire, for example, expanded their control across the world to gain access to resources. China is doing the same thing as well, except they aren’t taking them by force. China builds a relationship with other countries in which both parties benefit. In return for raw materials, China legitimately provides the infrastructure that the country lacks, whether they are hospitals, roads, or power plants. However, this does cause a strain on the country’s resources and may end up causing some backlash to to the relationship. The United States does this slightly differently. In the name of Democracy and settling political unrest in foreign countries, the US ends up occupying the country for a while and conveniently takes control of that country’s resources. It sounds horrible, but this is the reason why Americans are able to live so comfortably. If we want to change the world, we have to look pass the advantages. We have to see beyond the risks and rewards and overcome human’s selfishness. Only by doing so will we be able to create a world where these problems do not exist.

This week was our last reading and, to me, it seemed to serve as a fitting conclusion to our ongoing discussions on transnationalism and migrant networks. We spent many classes defining transnationalism as an ongoing “conversation” between a migrant, their home country and the country they are currently residing in. So far we have focused heavily on a migrant’s journey to a new country and how they stay in contact with their old country. This is usually done through phone calls, sending remittances and even visits every so often. We really haven’t touched upon what comes of these connections, but in Transnationalism Personified by Potter, Conway and St. Bernard, we finally see some conclusions; some migrants decide to simply go back to their home country.

These returns aren’t as incredibly spur of the moment as I may have made it seem. Most of these returns are very well thought out and planned. Migrants would often make dozens of minor trips to and from their home country to make sure things are all set before they visit and stay indefinitely. Something interesting about the article were all the different reasons why the different migrants decide to go back to their home country. Most of these reasons reflect many of the advantages of transnational networks, such as education, business opportunities, familial support and a quest for identity in general. As we talked about in class, all of these factors play into the idea of strategic flexibility. These transnational networks allow for migrants to make these choices; many immigrants don’t have this opportunity. The situation between the United States, the Caribbean and many other countries is special since dual citizenship is generally allowed. Certain countries discourage and outright do not allow dual citizenship, greatly hindering formation of the networks that are so common across the United States. Going back to flexibility, it is very easy to see how these networks are beneficial to both migrating peoples and receiving nations. The global economy, especially today, isn’t as stable as it was in previous years. Being able to find work in multiple countries where you are comfortable working and being able to call out to nationals abroad during times of economic stagnation is really important.

Another interesting thing is when you take a look at former immigrants from European nations. The whole idea of keeping in contact with your former home isn’t as popular among Europeans as it is among West Indians. Many immigrants were stripped of their ethnic names and identities when coming to America, almost erasing away any possibility of reconnecting with the past. Speaking from personal experience, when my great-grandmother emigrated from Ireland to New York in the early 1900s, she was left with almost nothing from Ireland. Her Gaelic name was tossed aside and she was basically given a new identity. Almost all of her belongings were trashed and she was left on her own. It was impossible for her to keep any ties with Ireland. The luxury of strategic flexibility is a more modern development.

Moving onto immigration today, I think we’re really at a tough spot here in America. The classic argument is that we should strengthen the borders because illegal immigrants are taking jobs away from Americans. Of course, the irony is that these jobs being “taken” are ones that Americans feel they are above doing themselves. In New York, some steps have been taken to help immigrants, such as the providing the opportunity to secure some sort of identification through the IDNYC program. Other parts of America aren’t nearly as accommodating. As for global issues regarding immigration, we really shouldn’t be so quick to jump in. Regardless whether we would be able to help or not, the second something doesn’t go right, the entire globe will be down our throats about how we basically ruin every foreign country we step foot in. Being America is basically a lose-lose situation- if we sit on our hands and turn a blind eye we are the villains and if we try to lend a hand and aren’t perfect at doing our jobs, we are also villains.

“Transnationalism Personified: Young Returning Trinidadians ‘in Their Own Words’” – Potter, Conway, and St. Bernard

This article looks at the relationship that Trinidadian migrants who return to Trinidad have with the country itself, in relation to their life paths and their views on returning. The authors mention that the article serves to address neglected topics in studies of transnationalism, including the effect of transnationalism on sending countries. They achieve this by using narratives from relatively young and returning Trinidadian migrants (hence, ‘in their own words’). Their perspectives are analyzed in seven areas:

(1) Transnational family and life-course issues – Family factors can influence the decision to maintain transnational ties with the homeland. For example, family living overseas and overseas support in child-rearing all play a role in these decisions.

(2) Transnational community relationships – The idea of being a “global citizen” plays a role here. The ease of communication and relatively cheap air transportation allow for the maintenance of ties to the homeland.

(3) Keeping in touch with the homeland – Repetitive visits gave people the right mindset and prepared them for their return to Trinidad. Some migrants described it as “information collecting” to formulate their “master plan” or as creating “a little base” in Trinidad.

(4) The concept of mobility – Travelling back and forth leaves open the possibility of returning at some point in time. Trinidad was seen as home, and migrants expressed the desire to eventually return “home.”

(5) Transnational identity – Some migrants felt a sense of “duality.” That is, they felt strongly toward both their homelands as well as the country they lived in. Many expressed this in the form of dual citizenship; others did so in terms of the maintenance of social networks with family and friends.

(6) Transnational economic and commercial interests – Ownership of property abroad as well as entrepreneurial plans in the homeland influence the decision to return home as well.

(7) The concept of “strategic flexibility” – Many of the people in the study expressed that they were open to future migration opportunities. This may be in response to new opportunities or out of necessity. They expressed it as the freedom, or “liquidity,” to move around.

Unlike many of the other readings on transnationalism throughout the semester, this article seems to touch on the fact that those who emigrate and maintain ties to the homeland do have the option to return. It was often overlooked that there are migrants who go back for various reasons: whether for practical purposes or to just go back “home.” I will admit that this article provided a refreshing viewpoint. It confirmed that “transnationalism and return are by no means incompatible.” Even with the ties that are maintained, it may not be possible in the short-term to go back. However, going back can be seen by a number of migrants as a long-term goal.

The movie “The Other Side of the Water” showed how West Indians in New York practice Rara, a form of Haitian music and dance. It’s origin is unknown, but many theories exist as to how it got created. Musicians that play rara do not follow any specific songs and invent music on the spot. When they practice, they let anyone show up and play with them. However, contemporary second-generation West Indians like to establish specific meeting times to practice. This does not coincide with older followers of rara because the musicians should not impose any restrictions on the music they want to play. It takes away from the feeling of detaching from worries and concerns in order to enjoy oneself. Rara is meant to simply be a way of having a good time. It also serves as a way to connect the West Indian community outside of the Caribbean. Thus, it is popular in New York City.

Lois Wilcken’s “The Sacred Music and Dance of Haitian Vodou from Temple to Stage and the Ethics of Representation” discusses the history and beliefs about Haitian vodou. This is the category that rara would fall under. Vodou is also a way for Haitians to enjoy themselves by playing music and dancing. When practicing vodou, people feel that they are possessed by spirits and their celebrations go on all night. Later, these celebrations began to be turned into performances, which made them detract from the idea that nothing is planned out or timed. Normally, spirits guide the performers’ movements and they dance and play for however long they want. The benefit of turning this into a performance is that vodou has become a quite well-known practice. Nevertheless, there are still some misconceptions about it. People view Haitians as cannibals because they associate vodou with the Haitian culture and some of those who practice Vodou do drink blood. However, this is only done on occasion and only certain people actually do it. Additionally, vodou was used as a way to incriminate Haitians during the United States’s 19 year invasion and occupation from 1915 to 1934. Vodou may have resulted in certain setbacks to Haitians because it was looked down upon, but it encourages Haitians to have national pride. Vodou, just like rara, helps unite the Haitian communities throughout the world.

“The Other Side of the Water” showed me the Haitian celebration of rara, and then I read about Haitian vodou in “The Sacred Music and Dance of Haitian Vodou from Temple to Stage and the Ethics of Representation.” I have not know about these forms of performances before. They seem quite pleasing and it surely must connect the Haitian community. My parents are Polish immigrants in the United States, but they never taught me any sort of Polish performance or activity. To have fun, I was only introduced to things all kids do: play with toys, go to the park, play games, etc. It would be nice for me to have an ethnic kind of way to please myself with other Polish people. Vodou and rara seem unconventional to me, but they seem like enjoyable things I would like to experience (if they were performed during the day).

This week’s media seemed to focus upon two forms of cultural expression that have gotten a rather bad rap here in the United States. People, especially those coming from areas with radically differing ideas on how to express cultural identity and community, often tend to assign negative connotations to things they don’t understand. It’s not particularly difficult to understand why people react negatively to rara and vodou. Think about it, I doubt anyone in this class has had any significant experiences with either of these two Haitian forms of expression. What I know (re: knew) about vodou centered around black magic and witchcraft. Thanks to this class my misconceptions have been cleared up but I have a feeling that the majority of Americans haven’t taken a Caribbean studies class.

So, starting with the documentary we watched, rara’s roots are largely unknown. What IS known however is that rara is meant to be a spontaneous musical celebration of Haitian culture and African heritage. Little is universal about this “genre” (I don’t know if this is a genre or not) except that the lyrics are always sung in Haitian Creole. Makes sense, why would it be sung in English? Or French even? Rara can take on many different tones with regards to the lyrics. The songs could be an endorsement of a political candidate or a harsh commentary of the state of Haiti. What I found interesting is that before rara became more of a spectacle or performance people were welcome to jump in whenever. I like that sort of spontaneity, it’s kinda like it’s encapsulating all of that energy into an unscripted performance. While the music itself doesn’t speak to me I can appreciate a community coming together to put on an impromptu show. It reminds me much of when I was in my mothers home town in rural Italy. Every saturday many of the townsfolk would come together and put on a musical performance in the piazza centrale (I don’t know the English equivalent of this, maybe town square?).

Moving right along to vodou, I will reiterate that I held ignorant beliefs regarding the practice. I have no shame in admitting that, I had no idea what it was all about three days ago. Much like rara, traditional vodou is another form of cultural expression that has it’s roots in African spirituality. Also like rara, it has a strong focus on spontaneity. Vodou ceremonies don’t take place until the community is ready and doesn’t end until the community is ready. I’ll be honest, it sounds a whole lot better than Catholic mass. I’m still not sure where vodou stands on the spectrum of spirituality and religion. From what I can glean vodou can be interpreted as a religious ceremony or just another communal gathering. Whatever the case may be it is an integral part of Haitian identity that deserves study, if only to assure oneself that it has next to nothing to do with black magic and wicker dolls with needles stuck in them.

“On the Other Side of the Water” shows the formation and evolution of an Haitian- Brooklyn Rara band. What is rara? How did it begin? How important is it to Haitian culture? Nobody really agrees or knows the answer to these questions- the best you can do is gather a ton of opinions and see what sticks the most. Rara is like a traveling band with horns, drums, and whatever instruments/ noise makers happen to be around; although, now it is taking on more defining characteristics, like having lots of horns playing. Some say rara began in relation to funeral processions, harvesting, or ‘Law says So’ Day during slavery times in Haiti. Some disregard Rara as something uncultured, associated with the poor, and unchristian due to its Vodou influence. Others argue that it is the most authentic form of Haitian identity, which has a negative connotation in America due to HIV rumors and its status as a third world country. Rara also becomes shown in a negative light as it becomes present in protests, which some claim reduces regard for the protests, and often draws an unruly crowd. Rara supporters say it is political in nature and is not the party it seems and that rara is meant to be chaotic. The realness of rara comes into question as well. Rara traditionally is not rehearsed and is spontaneous, anyone would wants to play and dance join along. The rara taking form in Brooklyn, following trends from Haiti, rehearses the music and more narrowly defines the sound, which some say is not the real rara. This film also depicted a lot of other transnational actions of the Haitian community, such as sending money home and members of the band taking care of one another since their parents are home/ are unmarried. This film also depicts how the occurrences in Haiti directly affect the American community because once coup d’etat       an uproar of the Haitian- American community responded, not only to that, but to all the other negative images and injustices inflicted upon their community.

Wilcken writes about Vodou’s transnational journey and its consequent misrepresentation. In American culture, Vodou has this kitschy vibe, with crazy dancing, zombies, vodou dolls. Dark and Unpleasant images of cannibalism and sacrifice has been spread through colonial tales. However, this sort of my mindset underscores the real Vodou religion of Haiti. Ever since its formation, believers have to justify their belief in something that most people have been unknowingly influenced to believe is both childish and barbaric. Haitians in America who believe in Vodou are in charge of clarify their beliefs, correctly presenting them, and expanding the wider public knowledge. Some companies present Vodou theater performances, which showcase their heritage in a positive light that they control, but is not necessarily how Vodou rituals were meant to be. So the question appears of how authentic is this sort of Vodou. There is also a question of Vodou has a nationalistic, cultural symbol of Haiti, but this also generalizes Vodou beliefs, distilling it for massive consumption, like theater performances. Vodou is meant to be a spiritual, religion to be followed by believers- not a side act to other agendas.

The vodou life is integrated into dance. Dance allows voduists to mediate with the body and connect to various spiritual nations. Each specific movement characterizes a spirit nation. For example, the dance that is attributed to Aradas resembles the movements of a serpent because the serpent represents the Rada nation’s centerpiece of rites.

The Vodou song also plays an important role in influencing the dance. Vodou songs all have a call-and-response structure. A soloists sends the song while the chorus answers with the same melody. Along with the singers, the sound of vodou drumming provides fuel to the dance. The drumming often conflict with the its own rhythm because each vodou rhythm generates its own antirhythm called a kase. Kase plays a role in destabilizing the dancer and thus, possessing them. The theory of vodou possession revolves around the Iwa. The Iwa is our own unique spirit that resides in our head. The spirit may speak to someone during sleep in the form of dreams and it can arise from vodou dance. The sounds of the drums, the movements, and the song can rouse the spirit in the head to dance. When this happens the spirit consumes the hosts consciousness and this leads to possession.

Throughout 200 years the vodou dance has been altered from traditional to modern stage dancing. In the beginning, when vodou dancing was considered a new phenomenon to people around the world, it was depicted without any cultural significance. The racist depiction of vodou in films and literature caused many Haitian individuals to step up and defend their culture. Vodou was associated with Haitian savagery and superstition. This depiction of vodou was a result of the United States invasion and 19 year occupation of Haiti. During this time many journalists has written novels on how North Americans had to come rescue Haitians from vodou. North Americans had their own view on vodou and shared it with the world. In reality, actual vodou has little to no resemblance. That is why today when we think of vodou the image of black magic and curses come to mind.

The film The Other Side of the Water, shares a similar aspect to the article on vodou. This film introduced rara, a form of music Haitians play in large groups while marching down the street. One particular member stayed away from rara because his mother believed that rara had satanic characteristics. Rara was popular back in Haiti as a form of coming together of the Haitian people. In Brooklyn, one man decided to bring rara back. He started the first rara by playing music and in doing so many other Haitian immigrants joined. There has been some conflict, however, because the older immigrants believed that rara was a spontaneous act where random people would just join by playing any instrument. The younger immigrants viewed rara as an event where only selected members could play and they had to attend rehearsal. Nonetheless, rara similar to vodou, has changed when it was brought to America. Rara is still a form of music that unites all the Haitian people.

Dance is a pivotal aspect in Caribbean culture, especially when considering the country of Haiti. In the reading,”The Sacred Music and Dance of Haitian Vodou from Temple to Stage and the Ethics of Representation” by Lois Wilcken, along with the documentary on Rara, the importance of dance is explicitly portrayed. Similar to most other cultures, dancing in Haiti is a form of entertainment, during which an individual can enjoy a great ongoing rhythm, and have a good time. However, this dancing can be an identifying factor due to the differences in the expressions and rituals, exclusively done by Haitians.

In the reading, Wilcken discusses if it is ethical to express the form of dance as it is currently expressed in mainstream media. Vodou is seen as an ancient black magic form of art that is dangerous and revolves around spirits, rhythm, and dance. Many of us know Vodou as Voodoo, which brings the image of people blowing smoke into people’s faces, dancing wildly, with an intimidating drum rhythm in the background. I believe that it isn’t ethical to misrepresent Vodou as it is today, because it is a tradition that traces back to ancient times, that has been continuing throughout the generations. However, this spiritual dance is not solely attributed to Haitians, but to many other nations that many of us do not know about. Counterintuitively, many of us know about Vodou, because of the falsified form of Voodoo that we know because of media. Actually, in many cultures, music is used to connect with spirits, and the divine energies that can not be seen through the eyes. Drums are used in many cultures and regions including Africa and Asia. A psychological study actually states that an individual enters a state of complete euphoria, during which he loses track of his present self, and almost enters another dimension, through the gateway of music. Having personally seen this is India, traditional music revolving around impeccable rhythm, can “drive a person to insanity,” but in reality it’s extreme pleasure, due to the spiritual contact it imbues. Some individuals actually start moving in frenzies, much like the Haitian dance we see when carrying out a ritual, but the interesting aspect is that, the individuals have no recollection of their state of euphoria. Some of the people get a burst of energy, and start ripping of their clothes, which is similar to Haitians dancing in minimal clothing. But, the interesting thing is that, this is all going on in public, and the individual “going crazy” is seen and admired by the surrounding audience. Now some skeptics might see this as an attempt for attention, but even young kids, who are extremely shy, have entered this level of euphoria, and psychologists have done tests during these euphoric states, to confirm the neurobiological significance behind it. In conclusion, it really isn’t ethical to misrepresent a tradition that has been in the making for centuries.

In addition, the form of Rara music is very intriguing, especially when viewing it in a psychological basis. The group identity takes over the individual identities, allowing the individuals to get their message through collectively. These messages included debunking discriminatory comments towards the Haitians, such as they are the cause of spread of Aids. However, Rara is also extremely similar to other countries, especially in India, in which numerous individuals march with music playing. However, the main instrument is the drums, and this drumming can be very spiritual. There are numerous drums along with one big drum that individuals take turn playing while marching towards a shrine or a holy place. The big drum is extraordinary because it is huge, around three to four feet , weighing about 100 or so pounds. But, normal individual come and pick this drum up, strap it on to themselves, and play it with the adrenaline pumping, eyes closed, surrounded by light, in a state of complete euphoria. This is very similar to Rara in which the individuals let loose, dance and have a good time, experiencing a state of complete joy.

On Tuesday, we watched an awesome documentary about Rara. Rara is a festival music that originates from Haiti. It consists of a moving band of people playing Caribbean music. In Haiti, Rara wasn’t something were proud of. As one band member stated, if you saw Rara in the streets, you should not be seen joining them. This negative connotation of Rara however did not follow the festival music to New York. As the band members recall, Rara in Flatbush began randomly. One day, two acquaintances began walking through the park playing their instruments, and suddenly, strangers began joining the movement with their own instruments. This group of strangers soon grew into a band that gained a following of Haitians in Flatbush. At first, the group only played Haitian music and beats, however things changed as the Haitian country went into flux. During the political coup of Haiti, where the favored leader was being overthrown, Haitians in Haiti were in uproar, and so were those in Brooklyn. To express their disdain, Haitians used the Rara band that played weekly. The band played songs and chanted against the injustice in Haiti, and Haitians following the band chimed in as the Rara moved through Flatbush. Furthermore, Haitians at that time were scapegoats for many problems in the New York. A major one was the spread of AIDS. Through Rara, Haitians expressed their opinions and their desire for equal treatment and the end of discrimination against them.  As Rara became an entertainment and political medium, its status also grew. The negative connotation previously involved with the movement disappeared and it became a medium through which Haitians showed pride and love for their nation.

The reading we did this week was “The Sacred Music and Dance of Haitian Vodou from Temple to Stage and the Ethics of Representation,” written by Lois Wilcken. In this reading, the author describes the music and dance involved Haitian Vodou, particularly as it came from Haiti to Brooklyn. Wilcken argues about whether the expression of Vodou in Brooklyn is ethical. In Vodou, dance and music are a way to communicate with the spirits. In the communal services, members use the call and response structure to express their emotions to the spirits. Furthermore, they use drums as a way to call upon the spirits to listen.

The elements involved in Vodou, such as dancing, singing, and praying  were considered sacred by those who practiced the religion. Anything that parodies these strong beliefs was sacrilegious and offensive. As one would expect, however, due to of tourism, immigration and the exposure of cultural practices, the Vodou dance became a spectacle. Haitian Vodou is was practiced as far back as the 1700’s by African slaves. The practice was of course frowned upon by the Christian Anglo-Saxons who controlled the Haitian country. Vodou was seen as barbaric and demonic, as well as pagan and opposing the beliefs of the Christian rulers. Today in Haiti, upper class citizens see Haitian Vodou as the culture of the dirty, lower class and completely stray away from the practice.Wilcken also mentions how the Vodou performances have become theatrical, and create profits from the people who pay to watch them. More so, those who perform these spectacles are not even practicing the religion, but are just putting on an exaggerated show to attract customers.

The most information I knew of Vodou, I received from cartoons and movies. Before, I imagined the religion to consist of a witch doctor that puts curses on people. After doing this reading and other research, I now know that Vodou is as much a religion as any other one. It is deeply practiced by many Haitians and even people of other countries. Like a priest leading a sermon in church where people are praying to god, Vodou members call upon the spirits to pray and express their feelings. Hopefully Vodou maintains its history and its false theatrical representation lessens.

When some one mentions vodou, I think of the magic. Probably one of the most famous of the vodou dolls that we often see in movies and media. To be honest, I was ignorant and thought that vodou was some sort of magic practicing evil cult. It wasn’t until I decided to understand it deeper that I realize I was wrong. The movie that we watched in class on Tuesday had a similar message. To many people, vodou is automatically associated with something bad. In one of the radio calls, the caller said it was already stigmatized. Even if Rara, a music festival that originated from Haiti with roots in vodou, did not practice the use of magic or sacrifices, by simply being associated with vodou it was seen as negative.

Lois Wilken’s “The Sacred Music and Dance of Haitian Vodou from Temple to Stage and the Ethics of Representation” describes the process of bringing a traditionally sacred event that had a meaning to the stage where it is performed to people who knew nothing about it. By doing this, the performance fails to communicate its original meaning to people watching. This loss of culture through performance is also seen in other cultures as well. Because of money or circumstances, traditional ceremonies become performances.

In Chinese culture, the traditional tea ceremony is a type of ritual in which the person performing the ceremony puts extreme effort into tea preparation and presentation. It is traditionally performed to bring out the best taste from tea or to welcome guests. To some, the tea preparation contains spiritual values. The entire process is extremely meticulous and requires extensive knowledge about tea. However, the meaning of this ceremony has since been lost. Due to it attracting foreign people, the tea ceremony went from being a ritual to a performance that entertains viewers. The traditional preparation time can range from 10 minutes to half an hour. Modern tea ceremony only lasts half as long. some may skip steps or shorten waiting time in order to show viewers the general procedure. The act of appreciating tea and tea preparation is gone.

Before reading Lois Wilcken’s “The Sacred Music and Dance of Haitian Vodou from Temple to Stage and the Ethics of Representation” I had a very limited understanding of the topic. I had never learned about it, nor seen it and my only understanding of it was this poorly portrayed notion that it was black magic of sorts. It had a lot to do with the way it was represented and how the information was presented. Its more of a form of worship and community, than the negative things its said to be.

“Vodou life revolves around the dance,” Wilcken writes. It is a time for the community to come together and “get down with the spirits.” It involves animal sacrifice, drawing diagrams on the floors of the temple and dressing the altar. Activities are led by a poto mitan, The dancing is seen a series of greetings to the spirit nations. Its usually two slow beats of the drum ensemble pattern embrace one dance pattern”. A soloist will send the song, while the chorus will answer.

I found it to be interesting that Vodou left the temple and entered the stage world. It was nice to see La Troupe Folklorique Nationale incorporating Vodou and Carnival in their dances. I think the way it was depicted in hollywood and internationally gave it a very bad reputation, and made it seem almost evil. Its very unfortunate that it wasn’t presented in an unbiased way.

The article discussed that since Vodou was passed verbally, only the educated elite could write down and spread the ideas of Vodou. It was from these limited, one-sided views that influenced the cinematic representation, which wasn’t very positive. In my opinion, in time, people will be able to learn more about this culture and it will lose some of the negative tones it carries. With the rise of Vodou art and performances, it will spread out and people will become more familiar with it.

In “The Sacred Music and Dance of Haitian Vodou from Temple to Stage and the Ethics of Representation,” written by Lois Wilcken, the author discusses the development of music and dance of Haitian Vodou, particularly in Brooklyn. Wilcken seems to have a strong opinion about how the music and dance of Haitian Vodou in Brooklyn should be expressed and whether the way that it is currently expressed “on stage” is ethical. From my research, I know that Haitian Vodou is a syncretic religion that incorporates African religious symbology and theology with Christian symbols. Dance and music are two important elements in Haitian Vodou. The dancing that followers do is a way of communicating with spirits. In the communal services, members use the call and response structure as a way to express their happiness, sufferings, anger and frustrations to the spirits. Instruments like drums are very important in Haitian Vodou services because they are used to be able to communicate with the spirits. Drums can be compared to telephones. When people play them in the services, it is as if they were dialing the phone to call the entities.

Before the common era, the dancing, singing, chanting and praying done in Haitian Vodou services were considered sacred by those who practiced the religion and could not be parodied. However, because of tourism, immigration and expression of culture to those that are not Haitian, the Vodou dance became a theatrical performance. Haitian Vodou is recorded to have been practiced by African slaves since the late 1700s. However, it has always been frowned upon and stigmatized by the Christian Anglo-Saxon community because it was seen as demonic, primitive and savage-like. This stigmatization is still present today in both Haiti and New York City. People of the upper class tend to see Haitian Vodou as the culture of the dirty, lower class and do not want to be associated with it. The stigmatization of Haitian Vodou, along with other things, caused the U.S. to occupy Haiti in the early 1900s. Many Americans had and still have negative stereotypes of the religion. Many do not even take the time to study the religion and learn about the roots.

The writer concludes the piece of work by saying that the theatrical performance of Vodou has been more of a monopoly, allowing people to profit from the public that watches it. The people who partake in the public, dramatic services are not practicing the true religion, but rather an over-exaggerated, fake depiction of it. I watched a video on the New York Times about the stigmatization of Haitian Vodou in New York City that said similar things about the practice of the religion in New York City. Sometimes immigrants lose the religious fervor they had in their country. This article was very intriguing, especially because of how it relates to the movie we watched on Tuesday. Sometimes you wonder why certain people do certain things, dress and talk a certain way and look different others. By learning more about their culture, you become more open-minded and knowledgeable about cultures other than your own. I think that this has been happening to me this semester. Before this class I did not even think about the complexities behind Caribbean culture. I just thought that the people in the non-Spanish speaking Caribbean were like extensions of Africa—meaning that they had deep connections with African culture and identified as such. However, now I know how different and how similar Caribbean culture is with African culture. The public has always misunderstood Haitian Vodou. I for one am still quite ignorant about the religion. However, I respect it and am willing to learn more about it.

The video we watched during class on Tuesday was interesting. I did not know about Rara, let alone that there is one band present in New York City that plays in Prospect Park. This Rara band was a way for many Haitian immigrants to reinvest into cultural practices from their homeland as well as remove the negative connotations associated with Haitians during the late twentieth century. Rara has gone through many controversies. Some people associate it with the devil. Others think that it is an odd, peasant-like and unworthy way through which people attempt to show their Haitian culture. However, many use it as a way to connect with people of their same country of origin, have a good time and develop a sense of belonging to a community.

Vodou, despite the Haitian promotion it receives, isn’t the real Vodou that is performed in the temples. I am glad that Vodou has gone from a hated art to a part of Haitian culture. However, the Vodou everyone sees isn’t the actual Vodou that is performed as part of the sacred rituals. It seems to be a complex development in which the growth of Vodou is also the suppression of Vodouists.

Although Vodou songs are performed as part of secret rituals, the author gives us an understanding of its basic structure. It has the popular call-and-response structure where there is one caller and the rest responds to the soloist. The beat of the drum is the fuel of the dance that highlights key words in the lyrics and guides the dancers in their movements. Vodou drumming is so powerful that as soon as the antirhythm hits, it is theorized to release the spirit inside the dancer’s psyche. Outsiders view the Vodou dance as a theatre performance. However, in its transfer from the temple to the stage, the authenticity of Vodou art is lost.

Unfortunately, despite there being actual Vodouists on stage, the performance is controlled by outside forces. In an attempt to make Vodou a part of Haitian culture, the Haitian elite also tried to redefine it into something they think is good. There is a huge dilemma where not only are foreigners are misrepresenting Vodou in Haitian culture, but so are Haitians themselves. This misunderstanding will not come to an end unless the Vodouists finally get a say in what they are performing. Because Vodou and Voudists are poor people, they attempt to both satisfy the requirements put upon them and perform their Vodou to move along.

Lois Wilcken makes a great point that the privileged, because they are the literate people of Haiti, monopolize the written accounts of Vodou in Haiti. Foreigners take their representation of Vodou as seen in cinemas. They are making stereotypes of what Vodou is. They have no authority to define something that they are not a part of. Fortunately, Vodouists can take their art to the theaters of educational institutions. These areas promote their students to view things like Vodou with different perspectives. Many other concepts, problems and ideals have the problem that they are misrepresented by people who are not part of it. Spreading their views to educational facilities can be the gateway for a better perspective on these matters.

The Sacred Music and Dance of Haitian Vodou

Most important element is Dance and music
Specialists conduct card readings and luck baths
Dance a way to communicate with spirit nations
Trace back to Africa
Rada, Djouba, Nago, Ibo, Kongo, Petow, and Gede
Rada-Arada (Bight of Benin)-West Africa
“Meditation of the Body”
Movements represent the spirit nation
Call+response songs in Haitian Kreyol

From Temple to Stage

Earliest accounts of Vodou appear in literature of travelers and historians
Moreau de Saint-Mery, French creole colonist and author of “De la Danse”
Short essay characterized vodou as “a sort of epilepsy” with “distorted contortions” and “monotonous drumming”
Racism also disrupts early accounts of the Bwa Kayiman dance
What is supposed to be a celebration of Haitian national identity is often overshadowed by bigoted perspectives of “primitive practitioners of lurid sacrificial blood pacts”
Despite loss of many lives fighting for beliefs revolutionaries were seen as cowards

In 1884, Sir Spenser St. John told the infamous story of affaire de Bizoton
His memoirs included accounts of cannibalism that he used to characterize the “savagery” of Haiti as a whole
After invasion of Haiti by the United States, vodou was criminalized
This inspired the production of several racially oriented portrayals of vodou
Notably, “The White Zombie” was a movie created sending the message that Haiti needed America to solve the problems that it brought onto itself through its superstitions
Had very little credibility from actual Haitians

Haitian intellectuals rallied around Jean Price-Mars for a revitalization of Haitian nationality
Introduced the notion of Haitian “folklore” based off of vodou and appealed to writers and musicians
Spawned black nationalism or noirisme
With the idea of noirisme and Haitian folklore becoming more acceptable, Haitians (and vodou) began a migration into the United States, particularly New York
This led to the creation of La Troupe Mankandal, a Haitian dance company emphasizing the magic of folklore which eventually migrated to New York
There were other organizations for folklore but Mankandal became the most famous for its stress on the magical aspect of vodou
For many Haitians, folklore often meant migration to a better life.

Early folklore, though accepted was criticized for its choreography
Vodou dance and song was supposed to be inspired by the possession of individuals by spirits
However, Mankandal eventually migrated into a cultural scene
This can be attributed to the popularity of the spektak, shows involving folklore that were modeled off of festivals back home
Spektak received popularity from newspaper editor Firmin Joseph who is credited with the development of the shows
Following death of Joseph and the departure of other first generation artists, Mankandal and the spektak lost popularity

Ethics of Representation 

Who gets to represent the culture of a group of people?
Hollywood representation
Those who were literate monopolized what vodou is.
Question’s its authenticity
Nationalist claiming vodou
represent it as a matter of blackness
Nationalism=culture
But vodou is much more than that
expresses specific experiences of marginality, oppression, and resistance
Deeper than a nationalist identity
Specific socioeconomic class of people

The readings the last two weeks have been very refreshing. We’ve talked a lot about transnationalism and migrant networks, but really only seemed to focus on economic and political aspects. Many of the articles we’ve read focused very heavily on these issues, though each article gave varying perspectives. I’m glad we have started to take a closer look at some of the more social and cultural aspects of transnationalism. After reading about J’ouvert and Carnival last week, we continued to examine music and other traditions this week.

On Tuesday we watched The Other Side of the Water, which chronicled a group of young Haitian immigrants trying to establish an old Haitian tradition in the streets and parks of Brooklyn, New York. This old tradition is that of rara, a sort of street festival music. A rara group would come together with a bunch of different instruments, such as horns, trumpets and drums, and perform for whoever was around. People could join in and eventually a large chorus would break out in the middle of the street. The men in the movie are credited with creating the first (and currently only) sustained rara band in America, dubbed Djarara. This ensemble ends up becoming more than just a band; many Haitian immigrants in New York used this traditional music from Haiti to combat the many new stigmas associated with Haitian immigrants. For example, the AIDS epidemic and the rise of controversial policing ostracized many in the Haitian community. Djarara, a new take on a classic art form, united Haitians abroad and kept many going through rough times. The most interesting part about the film to me was how there was some conflict between how to go about performing rara in Brooklyn. Some of the older men felt that it should be played more traditionally; no rehearsals and anyone who passed by could join in. Younger men felt that it should be more finely crafted and that there should be rehearsals and a set list.

Moving into our article for Thursday, we looked at another traditional aspect of Haitian culture, Vodou. Vodou, more often written as Voodoo, is a religion that grew to prominence among African slaves in the Caribbean after many enslaved Africans were forced to convert to Christianity. There are some parallels between the two religions, but the largest differences revolve how each is celebrated. Vodou, unlike most forms of Christianity, revolves around music and dance as a form of “meditation for the body.” Although hymns and psalms are a large part of many Christian churches, most do not focus so deeply on music and dance. Slow, rhythmic drum beats often lead the pace for Vodou dance rituals, and help provide a “fuel” for the dance and guide participants. Call and response songs are also a large part of Vodou rituals, something Vodou celebrations share with Christian ones. To me, it is pretty ironic how a religion that gained so much popularity because it was practiced in response to another forced religion could share so much with the religion that was being forced upon. Another odd thing about Vodou is how it is often dual-perceived. As noted in the article, many factions tend to identify with Vodou to suit their own purposes. One could look at is a revolution starter, something that helped unite slaves to rise up and fight for what is right. That same person, later, could refer to Vodou as something to be avoided; something so powerful that it can change loved ones for the worse.

In Lois Wilcken’s article, “The Sacred Music and Dance of Haitian Vodou from Temple to Stage and the Ethics of Representation”, Wilcken talks about the common misconceptions about vodou in the Haitian culture. He talks about its history, how it developed, and how it helped the Haitian community escape from oppressive authorities. In the first couple of pages, Wilcken explains that the first misconception that most people have about vodou is that people dance insensibly to calm the fears they have about their environment. They just “pretend to dance” (Wilcken 193) to quell their fears and the mysterious cult in their society. However, upon deeper analysis, one can see that vodou, the dances and its rituals, were all ways in which people were able to “escape the vigilance of the authorities” (Wilcken 193) and to question those in power.

In these same pages, Wilcken explains the preparation and the main focus that goes into vodou. Vodou revolves around dancing. Preparation would consist of the whole day and include the following: animal sacrifices, magic diagrams on the floor, dressing the altar, and having planned activities for the guests for the whole day. The drums help drive the vodou dance as they dance for a long time.

When the United States took over Haiti, many journalists misrepresented vodou as zombie-like. Many movies produced in the U.S. made Haiti seem like they needed the help from the U.S. to solve “the problems caused by its own ignorance and superstition” (Wilcken 199). The term “voodoo” was coined from this misrepresentation. Many vodou performance groups formed and went to the U.S. in an attempt to escape the oppressive Duvalier regime. It also became an economic profit from tourism, for tourists would come to the islands and watch how the “real vodou” was done because the rituals and practices of vodou were traditionally passed on to each generation orally. These also caused foreign communities to develop different ideas about vodou because many of these groups would just enact the main vodou ceremony without explaining what was going on. These performances would last a couple of hours so many of the day long rituals could not be shown.

A group of teenagers in a poor part of Haiti experimented with their own sort of vodou and folklore, forming a performance group called Makandal. They earned a free passageway to NYC and become one of the most popular groups on the scene. Makandal features daring maneuvers, from fire handling to piercing the skin. New members started to join the group as the old members split apart and one of them died.

An interesting thing to note is that many of Haitians have kept certain vodou rituals a secret from outsiders and foreigners. Many priests would urge the performance groups in NY to not show all of the vodou dances because the foreigners didn’t need to see it all. Many of these groups had to adjust to the new technologies and the new audience members in NY.

Overall, many people from different societies have viewed vodou in puzzling and negative connotations. There is the constant struggle for performance groups to protect some of the hidden vodou rituals and there is the struggle to explain what vodou really means for Haitians to the foreigners. These vodou performances continue to challenge “asymmetries of power” (Wilcken 207) as they bring revolution to Haiti and the foreigners.

“The Sacred Music and Dance of Haitian Vodou from Temple to Stage and the Ethics of Representation” – Lois Wilcken

This article talks about the development of the music and dance of Haitian Vodou (specifically in Brooklyn) as well as how it should be expressed and whether or not the current method of representing the art form is ethical. Vodou is introduced as revolving around the dance. The dance is a series of greetings to spirit nations that follows a ritual order and is often considered a “meditation.” It is also characterized by a call-and-response structure, which emphasizes collective needs, as well as drumming to create a rhythm and antirhythm (or opposing rhythm).

The Vodou dance is often compared to theater and drama; indeed, the modern staging of the music and dance is a recent development in Vodou’s representation. The earliest accounts of Haitian Vodou come from the accounts of missionaries in the late 1700s as they recount slave dances. However, the accounts cast the slaves in a negative light (as primitive and savage). As a result, many of the elite (in a way) dismissed Vodou as a side effect of black spirituality and that of the oppressed. Later, this mindset was partly used to rationalize the United States’ occupation of Haiti in the early 1900s. This led to a misrepresentation of Vodou called the “voodoo” and eventually led to the idea of the “zombie.” In the latter half of the 1900s, La Troupe Makandal fought for a more authentic representation of Haitian Vodou. However, this movement suffered as there were disagreements on the method of representation of Vodou, and some had outdated views on authentically representing Vodou, thus limiting its identity.

The author concludes by saying that the representation of Vodou has been “monopolized” by privileged foreigners and Haitian intellectuals. As a result, it is argued that “asymmetries of power permeate cross-cultural encounters,” and, thus, representation has failed to include the voices of the oppressed.

I have to say that this article was very interesting. In particular, I was not aware that the term “voodoo” actually stemmed from a misrepresentation of Haitian Vodou. This misrepresentation seemed to stem from the image of Vodou that was promoted: that of a savage and barbaric spirituality. What was also very interesting was that the concept of the “zombie” also originated from this misrepresentation. According to the article, it stems from the concept of the “zonbi, the soulless body of ancient legend.” This is particularly interesting because the concept of the zombie can be found in many areas of pop culture today.

It may very well be because of this misrepresentation that the long history of Vodou is not as generally well known. I certainly did not know much (if anything) about Haitian Vodou before reading this article. Thus, it seems that the only way to remedy the effects of such a misrepresentation is to inform people about its past.

As it was seen in the ending of Danticat’s novel and the occurrences of natural disasters like earthquakes and hurricanes, the congregation of diasporic people was essential and vital. Many of the individuals who share a sense of culture, tradition, or nationality were seen to form groups to help each other collectively. As seen in the end of “Dew Breaker,” the diasporic individuals, Haitian for example, regardless of being opposing violent factors, essentially came together at the end. Specifically, the dew breaker and the sister of the priest that was murdered by the dew breaker, ultimately ended up getting married in the end because of the inevitable fact that they need each other to survive. This goes along the lines of redemption and forgiveness, which are strong aspects of the religion shared by these Haitians individuals, thus being another conforming factor bring them together.

Other key, yet unfortunate events that bring individuals together, such as the Haitians again for example, was the drastic earthquake that occurred in Haiti. Emphasizing the ideals of nationalism, many of these individuals set aside their personal differences, and work towards helping each other out. New York being a big center of Caribbean migrants including Haitians, played an extremely important role in helping Haiti recover from the unfortunate drastic event. This emphasizes the act of people coming to together for the general betterment of their own kin, as seen at the end of “Dew Breaker.” Examples of how the individuals helped included raising awareness of the catastrophe, and raising funds and organizations to help Haiti. Although it is a very sad event, it is remarkable of how it is capable of congregating numerous people to serve under one purpose. Thus, it comes down to helping each other through trouble times, because that is all they have…their own people.

However, this example cannot be isolated to the earthquake in Haiti alone. Multiple examples have occurred, and are still occurring that are bringing individuals together that share the same culture, traditions, or nationality to help the ones in need. As mentioned in class, the earthquake in China sparked a revolutionary reaction in New York, due to the great number of Chinese immigrants living in the United States. The Chinese individuals quickly got together to help their home country to recover, and aid them in a desperate time of need. A personal example would be the recent avalanche that occurred in Afghanistan, which worried my family very much, since we have family and numerous other relatives still living in Afghanistan. Unfortunately, no one that was close to our family was hurt; however, many Afghans did die. Despite the many existing issues in Afghanistan right now the individuals got together and helped the ones in need. My mother actually sent money from America to Afghanistan to help with the recovery process, even though we weren’t closely related to them. This goes to emphasize the transnational stance, and how the networks linking many countries through their immigrants still exits today. The Haitians in America are explicitly displaying their transnational ties by forming relieve organizations and sending funds from a totally different country for their home country, maintaining that crucial transnational link. Nevertheless, immigrants and humans in general require companionship and cooperative interactions with other individuals to survive and get through tough time, thus accentuating the act of people coming together.

The earthquake that struck Haiti in 2010 was devastating and a traumatic experience. It caused the death of thousands, and incredible damage to the country. The earthquake caused massive rebuilding within the country, both physically and emotionally. This event encouraged a strengthening between Haiti and the diaspora, an increased nationalism in the 2nd generation Haitian youth, and it brought about political change. 

After the earthquake, resources from all over the world were being sent to Haiti. Different organizations were sending aid and support. In general, churches were key in sending information and resources between Haiti and the U.S., “operating in a transnational social field.” Other groups such as the Association of Haitian Physicians Abroad and Partners in Health sent thousands of Creole-speaking medical volunteers to help the people. Companies such as Western Union announced a “no transfer fee” to allow relatives to send money to their loved ones. Airlines followed in suit, allowing people to ship things to Haiti with no charge. Digicel, a popular phone company, vowed to replace all SIM cards, offered price reduction and made phone charging stations. This helped relatives as they began to “scramble to communicate.”

With a wave of aid coming in, this was an opportunity to “restructure the political relationship between Haiti and its Diaspora”. In the past people were either with the regime in power, or against it, making citizens abroad not welcome. This cut ties and left the citizens in Haiti and the citizens abroad very divided. After the earthquake, people regained ties as they tried to locate their relatives and send aid.

The earthquake also greatly impacted the second generation youth. When Wyclef Jean ran in the presidential race, he had immense support from the youth and he raised awareness. After the earthquake, universities gathered to contribute to the relief effort and students were proud to identify as Haitian. This was a big difference since the 80’s when people tried to hide their identity.  Lundy believes that the second generation are vital to the “reshaping and reconstruction of Haiti.” I think that this sense of identity and nationalism is important in promoting the global support of Haiti, and it could be extremely important in the future of Haiti. 

The second half of Dew Breaker was very morbid, but strangely beautiful. I thought Danticat’s ending was bittersweet even though Anne’s husband was the one that killed her brother. I think their relationship wasn’t based on love as much as it was based on the mutual need to survive. The Dew Breaker’s past was always with him because of his scar and because of Anne. He was always in hiding, but he could never escape what he had done to the people in the prison. This book was very well written and captured the struggle of leaving the past behind and trying to move on. Its ironic because the Dew Breaker hunted down people and brought them to prison, but then when he escaped to America, the memories of the people haunted him and he was imprisoned in this fear of being identified. He tried to get rid of his past by drowning the statue, but nothing could help him. I found the story to be extremely powerful, and I loved that it was written from the experiences of those around him. It gave the reader an idea of what life was like in Haiti and in America too at that time. I personally feel bad for both Anne and the Dew Breaker because of their situations. The Dew Breaker tried to get out of the life he led. He did not want to kill anyone anymore, and he was simply done with the military and his lifestyle. Anne, on the other hand, is so different than him. She is very spiritual and faithful, and I feel like she would never hurt anyone. In a sense they balance each other out, but to me it seems like a desperate reliance on one another to stay alive and to be supported. Anne, like the majority of the women in the book, was a healer, while the Dew Breaker caused bloodshed. Overall, I really liked this book and was a big fan of Danticat’s writing style.

This week concluded our reading of The Dew Breaker by Edwidge Danticat. Toward the end of the novel we get to see what the past of the father, the dew breaker, and those around him. We see how the macoutes affected the people who they interacted with back in Haiti. They tortured for the Duvalier regimes and caused misery and terror. The transformations that the dew breaker had were explored. He came from poverty and was given a chance to have power and authority and he loves it. But the price he pays is that he has to commit these crimes against humanity and love with them later on. He ends up murdering a rebellious priest. And this man is the stepbrother of the woman he ended up marrying. I found it really interesting how in diaspora, people on both sides of the violence found themselves together. They need each other and must stick together. This lines up Christian themes of forgiveness and redemption in order to make recover from a dark past.

This week we read Transnationalism in the Aftermath of the Haiti Earthquake: Reinforcing Ties and Second-Generation Identity by Garvey Lundy. In the article, Lundy summarizes what transnationalism is and ties it into the event of the 2010 earthquake in Haiti. Transnationalism is the phenomenon of people migrating from a homeland to elsewhere while establishing connections and loyalties where ever they go. Lundy breaks down transnationalism in a way that I really like, since it makes it very clear. There are six domains of transnationalism: social morphology and formation of relationships, consciousness and identity, cultural reproduction and hybrid cultural productions, avenue of capital, political engagement, and finally relationship with space. Lundy only focuses on three of these: social morphology and formation of relationships, consciousness and identity, and political engagement.

The earthquake was very strong (7.0 magnitude) and caused mass amounts of destruction and loss. The earthquake left many homeless and injured. The physical destruction, in regards to buildings and infrastructure was very hard-hitting as well. The combination of all these factors left Haiti crippled and in a very vulnerable position. It was very difficult to get aid to the places where it was needed, so Haiti needed help from lots of groups. One of the major groups to help was the Haitian diaspora.

The social morphology section explores how people of the diaspora gathered together to help with the situation back in the homeland. Haitian families in the diaspora acted through churches and other benevolent associations to take care of kin at home. Some even opened their homes in the United States to family members, refugees, and orphans. Others in the diaspora went to Haiti in order to personally help to rebuild the country

There were some groups who aided who were not part of the diaspora. The U.S. government granted a temporary legal status to those leaving Haiti due to the earthquake. Haitian professional organizations sent skilled people from the United States to the Caribbean to help those devastated by the earthquake. Western Union introduced a “no transfer fee” for any amount of money sent to Haiti from the US. Some Airlines let the Haitian Diaspora send aid supplies to Haiti for free and donated to Haiti relief programs through frequent flier programs. Digicel enacted a plan to replace broken SIM cards for those who needed them in Haiti and created free charging sports for Haitians to use. These kinds of aid programs by outside parties, were extremely helpful to the recovery process.

After this, Lundy focuses on the political side. He explains how prior to the earthquake the Haitian diaspora was not well incorporated in the happenings of Haiti and had no say. Earthquake caused Haiti to open up to its diaspora and there is a will to reform the relationship between Haiti and its diaspora. Some advancement has been made in integrating since the earthquake happened. Since then, some Haitian presidential candidates have made visits to the United States (especially New York City) as part of their campaigns. Haitian politicians also use the Internet and other “diasporic public spheres” to communicate with the diaspora.

The finally aspect analyzed was the side of identity and consciousness. Lundy explains that in the past many Haitians tried to cover up their Haitian ancestry but as time has passed the second generation has gained a stronger nationalistic Haitian identity. A strong signifier of this is the amount of Haitian Student of Associations at colleges that distinguish them from other Caribbean people and blacks. After the Earthquake, these student groups faced a swell in membership. More people were recognizing their Haitian identity. Regardless of the negative depiction of Haitians and the lack of direct connection to Haitians, most of the second generation still has a strong Haitian identity. Lundy brings up the example of Wyclef Jean, who is a second generation Hip-Hop star who ran for president in Haiti after the earthquake. He had a strong following from the youth and this shows how strong those transnational connections really are.

Lundy believes that transnationalism has a strong effect on people of the second and third generation, not just on the migrants themselves. It affects the identities of the later generations in a dramatic way. He also believes that as time passes, the diaspora will become more and more important and involved in what happens in Haiti.

Edwidge Danticat’s The Dew Breaker is an exceptional novel that may seem a bit bewildering at a first glance. The novel is broken up into different chapters, with each chapter seeming as if it was its own story. However, as the readers continue to read each chapter and the numerous stories, we start to realize that each different story with their different characters relate with one another to the other stories mentioned in the different chapters. Danticat has a larger picture that she tries to show by placing us in the numerous shoes of the variety of characters found in The Dew Breaker.

One of the prominent chapters, known as “Monkey Tails”, shows a first person glance of a character living in the area at the time that “Baby Doc”, the president of Haiti, was exiled to France. Michel, who is a little kid at the time, experiences for the first time when his country goes into chaos. Mobs of angry citizens of Haiti form as they go around in search of macoutes, also known as “Dew Breakers”. The macoutes were the torturers of Duvalier’s regime and it was now the time for the community to take their revenge. Michel’s best friend, Romain, has a father who is also a macoute and is on the run from the mobs in the community. Romain decides to flee the country and to start a new life, extending his “monkey tail” to reach newer and better places. Later on in the book, it is made clear that Michel is now the current tenant of Ka’s father, who was a macoute at the time, showing the constant interactions between the Haitian community and that it is hard to escape one’s past.

In another noticeable chapter, titled as “Funeral Singers”, three new characters and their struggles are brought into the novel. Freda used to be a funeral singer in Haiti. However, when she was invited to sing at the national palace, she refused the offer because she blamed the macoutes for killing her father. Mariselle, who is a widow, used to be married to a famous painter. However, her husband painted an unflattering image of the president and thus was killed. She had to escape the country in order to save her life from being in danger. Rezia used to live with her aunt in her aunt’s brothel. One night, Rezia was raped by a macoute and never talked about it to her aunt. When her aunt was dying, the aunt told Rezia that the aunt had allowed the macoute to rape her so that her brothel establishment would not be shut down. Rezia decided to leave the country for good and make a better living in the states. All these girls met each other through a GED class and they all worked hard to get a high school diploma.

The final chapter, which has the most shocking story of all, is all about Ka’s father as the Dew Breaker when he lived in Haiti. The Dew Breaker had a rough childhood, with his mother going insane and their family’s small plot stolen away from them. The Dew Breaker was encouraged to join the macoutes and he gladly did, seeing that they had power and money. He started to enjoy making himself fat, feeling that his power grew as his body did. He used his influence to gain back his family’s plot of land and he was a well-known torturer. Anne was the sister of a prominent preacher, who was provocative in the fact that he went against the president and the macoute’s regime of power. One night, the Dew Breaker received an order to capture the preacher and to take him to one of their torture camps. The preacher is tortured and beaten up there. When the Dew Breaker and the preacher had an encounter with each other, the preacher attacked the Dew Breaker and sliced his face, forming a scar on his face. The Dew Breaker retaliated by shooting the preacher in the chest numerous times. The Dew breaker wasn’t supposed to kill the preacher. In fear for his life, the Dew Breaker ran out of the torture camp and ran into Anne, who was frantically looking for her brother, the preacher. He asked Anne to help him and she does so by nursing his wounds and finally marrying him. They live in the Untied States and have their baby, Ka. The Dew Breaker is constantly repenting for his mistakes of torturing many people. He is always fearful that someone in the Haitian community will recognize him and kill him for once being a macoute. He also lives with the regret of killing his wife’s stepbrother. Even worse than that is the fact that Ka is now disgusted of what her father used to do to people. Ka always believed that her father was the prisoner, not the actual torturer. The Dew Breaker and all the other macoutes who are now living in fear, constantly repent for their sins by living under different aliases within the Haitian community whose members they once tortured.

In Garvey Lundy’s article, “Transnationalism in the Aftermath of the Haiti Earthquake: Reinforcing Ties and Second-Generation Identity”, Garvey talks about the political and social morphological effects that the Haitian earthquake had on the Haitian Diasporic community. Before the Haitian earthquake, many Haitians were embarrassed to state that they were from Haiti. This was due to the fact that in 1980, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention claimed that Haitian people had the highest chances of contracting HIV and other diseases. This made it especially hard for Haitians to gain jobs and acquire rented apartments. However, after the onset of the Haitian earthquake, many Haitians had an extreme sense of nationalism. They took every effort in helping out the communities in their native countries. Haitian churches in New York raised donations that they sent back to Haiti for the rebuilding of houses. Many individual Haitians in the New York communities went to Haiti themselves to volunteer in helping out with the cleaning. U.S. Airlines all helped send donations and goods from American to Haiti for free. Other companies, such as Digicell, offered free SIM cards and phone charging stations so that Haitians would be able to keep in touch with their loved ones in the other countries. The course of the Haiti earthquake showed that transnationalism and second generation identity is still strong. There was a strong sense of helping their own community when they were in need of help.

The Dew Breaker continues by introducing more stories to relate all the different characters introduced in the beginning. The idea of being sheltered from reality appears in the “Bridal Seamstress.” Two characters were introduced Aline and Beatrice. Beatrice explains how she was tortured in Haiti by the Dew Breaker. The Dew Breaker would whip the soles of her feet and then make her walk back home without shoes. When Beatrice moved to America, the trauma of torture followed her. She believes that the torturer moves wherever she goes because she thinks that the Dew Breaker lives on her block. Although Aline tries to tell Beatrice that the Dew Breaker doesn’t live there anymore, Beatrice doesn’t believe it.  Beatrice thinks that although the Dew Breaker doesn’t live there, he still hides there watching her. Beatrice is blinded from reality. This circumstance is similar to Aline because she is protected from hearing the realities of people like Beatrice from the silence of the families.

The “Monkey Tails,” reintroduces Michel but this time his past was described. This story was told during the time that Jean-Claude Duvalier, or Baby Doc was overthrown. In this chaos, mobs were formed to go after the dew breakers, or macoutes. Michel finds his friend Romain, whose father, Regulus is one of the macoutes. Regulus later killed himself after being pursued. Michel’s also had father issues because his father Monsieur Christophe never told Michel that he was his dad. The theme of silence appears again as Christophe hid this secret from Michel. The monkey tail refers to Duvalier as being able to swing from tree to tree going higher each time.

The “Funeral Singers,” introduces three new characters Freda, Mariselle, and Rezia. These three ladies are similar to the three men Eric, Michel, and Dany in the beginning of the novel. They each had their own stories about their life in Haiti. Freda was a funeral singer who refused to sing at the national palace. Therefore, her mother told her to leave Haiti. In Mariselle’s case her husband was killed when he painted a distorted image of the president. Therefore, she felt the need to escape the country. Rezia was raped when she was a little girl by a macoute. In all these circumstances, these ladies had to leave Haitit and find a new place of settlement.

The final chapter in this novel ties everything together by finally telling the story of the Dew Breaker’s life. The Dew Breaker wanted leave the country but decided to do one last job. This job involved killing a preacher. This preacher happened to be Anne’s stepbrother. The Dew Breaker revealed that he became a dew breaker because he didn’t want to be like his parents. The Dew Breaker along with other macoutes captured and beat up the preacher. The Dew Breaker finds out that he made a mistake by not initially killing the preacher. Now his mission was to release the preacher alive. However, after the Dew Breaker captured the preacher, the chair that the preacher was sitting on broke. The preacher then used the broken leg of the chair to slash the Dew Breaker’s face. Infuriated, the Dew Breaker killed the preacher. When he escapes he meets Anne who helped him recover his wound. They then moved to America together.

The Dew Breaker had to endure all the years of living with the guilt of murdering his wife’s stepbrother and constantly being constantly afraid of being recognized. This is like a punishment of for him because he is reminded everyday of his actions. Death would be an easier way out but it is too late now because he has a family. The life of the Dew Breaker has affected all the characters in the book one-way or the other. For some reason Danticat never revealed the true name of the Dew Breaker.

The second portion of Danticat’s The Dew Breaker gave a beautiful and intricate finish to a touching novel. This portion, like the first, consisted of multiple stories from multiple perspectives that illustrate the impact and wide reach of the dew breaker, Ka’s father.

In “The Bridal Seamstress,” we hear the story of Beatrice Saint Fort. Beatrice is bridal seamstress from Haiti who has worked all her life. We learn about her through her interview with Aline, whose initial goal was to get a story about the soon-to-retire tailor. However, it was Beatrice who actually got the story on Aline. With every question Aline presented, Beatrice would ask one in return, thus exposing Aline’s past and inner thoughts. Aline, who did not even want to be a reporter, opens up to Beatrice about her life during the interview. After some time, Beatrice asks Aline to go outside and look at her block. During this interaction, Beatrice reveals her traumatizing experience from Haiti, where a prison guard whipped her for refusing to go to a dance with him. Beatrice believes that the prison guard now follows her everywhere she moves, as if haunting her. When Aline examines the supposed house of the prison guard, she sees that the house has been empty for years. Thus, we understand that maybe Beatrice is simply hallucinating due to the traumatic impact of this dew breaker. Aline, realizing the significance of this past torturer, thinks that he may be connected to other people. From this, she contemplates her future and thinks that her new goal will be to uncover this dew breaker in his new homeland.

In the next story, “Monkey Tails,” Danticat introduces Michel. Michel is thinking over his life in Haiti, where experienced misfortunes. In Haiti, after the Duvalier’s were extracted, chaos broke out as the citizens chased after the dew breakers, or ‘macoutes’. In this reflection, we learn of Romain. Romain, Michel’s friend, was the son of macoute who abandoned him while feeling the country. From this, Romain feels unwanted by his family. Furthermore, Romain finds out that his true father is actually next-door neighbor Monsieur Christophe who never expressed care for him. Furious by his life of lies, Romain also leaves Haiti. Afterwards, we find out that Romain’s dad committed suicide. This story was depressing and revealed the different misfortunes the people in Haiti experienced under the Duvalier’s.

“The Funeral Singer” is about the lives of Freda, Mariselle and Rezia. The narrator, Freda, was a funeral singer who had to flee from her homeland after refusing to sing for the president. Mariselle left Haiti because her husband was shot for painting an unflattering portrait of Haiti’s president. Rezia was raped by a macoute with the consent of her own aunt. This section further describes the sufferings many immigrants experienced in their past homelands. It further illustrates that immigrants truly move to achieve a better life in another country.

The last story of Danticat’s novel, “The Dew Breaker (circa 1967)” reveals the previous lifestyle of Ka’s father as a prison guard. Under orders, the dew breaker was searching for a preacher who spoke out against the government. During the search, we learn that Ka’s father became a dew breaker to escape the fate of his parents, who lived to work harshly in the fields. When the preacher is found, the dew breaker and other macoutes beat him. Afterwards, Ka’s father takes the preacher to his office for questioning. It is there that he receives the scar he struggle to hide on his face. After being attacked, Ka’s father kills the preacher. After the murder, he runs from the office, where he meets Anne, the preacher’s sister. Anne cares for the dew breaker’s wounds. The two eventually flee to the United States. The story ends with Ka asking her mother if there is more to her father’s story.

In the next reading, Lundy discusses the response of the Haitian diaspora to the earthquake on January 12, 2010. Lundy mentions how Haitians living outside of their homeland made use of political, economic , and communication ties to help their family who suffered back home. This article also investigates the impact of the earthquake on the identity of the second generation. Three fifths of Haitians living in the U.S. lost a loved one and two thirds desired to move back to help reconstruct their nation. Lundy further discusses transnationalism in detail, defining it as the process by which immigrants foster a complex relationship that  binds them to their country of origin while they are simultaneously involved in their country of settlement. Lundy mentions that there are six interpretations of transnationalism: social morphology, type of consciousness, modes of cultural reproduction, avenue of capital, sites of political engagement, and reconstruction of a place or locality.

The second half of Edwidge Daniticat’s “The Dew Breaker” sums up and concludes all the separate stories that were begun in the first half of the novel. In addition to this, she adds backstories for some of the characters with whom we are already familiar. All of these vignettes focus in on the characters experiences in Haiti and provides the impetus for them needing to leave the country. For instance, Michel was embroiled in the chaos that rocked Haiti after the overthrowing of Baby Doc Duvalier. Unsurprisingly after the deposition on Baby Doc the population formed mobs to root out all the macoutes. Regulus, Michel’s friends father, happened to be a macoute. He ended up committing suicide because of the pursuing mob. The Dew Breaker ends up marrying Anne, whose stepbrother he murdered after being assaulted with a piece of broken chair. I don’t know how this happened to be honest with you, why the Dew Breaker would choose to spend his life in America married to someone who he had personally wronged makes no sense to me. Maybe being reminded every day of the atrocities he committed is his own twisted way of repenting.

My observation about the lack of levity in Danticat’s writing has remained unchanged. Normally I don’t like to make such shallow comments on writing style but this book genuinely left me a little depressed. I completely understand why the author chose to write this way, the stories she portrays are not happy ones. These immigrants journeys have taken them through some very dark times during the Duvaliers’ rule. It would be disrespectful not to capture every last miserable detail.

Moving on to something marginally less personally depressing but equally devastating, the Haitian earthquake killed over a hundred thousand people and left the capital, Port-Au-Prince ruined. Out of all this devastation it can be said that one positive aspect emerged. The Haitian diaspora suddenly got much more patriotic and took a much keener of an interest in helping out their paesani back home. The Haitian population living in New York, amongst other areas, experienced a surge of nationalism and national pride. For the first time they didn’t feel ashamed to admit that they were Haitian. Perhaps it could even be said that this earthquake was the start of the Haitian diaspora looking at their heritage as a source of strength rather than a source of shame. Corporations and individuals alike came together in an attempt to expedite the rebuilding and betterment of the country, in a way this earthquake galvanized Haitian nationalism.

I didn’t know that Haiti’s history was so rich with conflicts until this week’s reading. Edwidge Danticat’s The Dew Breaker not only had an intriguing story about regret and redemption, but also included Haiti’s political and social situation during that time period. After reading the book, I realized that transnationalism is very strong between Haiti and Haitian American. Even if people living in Haiti emigrate out of the country, they can’t escape the past they had in Haiti, and are sometimes haunted by it. The Dew Breaker is my most favorites of the books I’ve read this semester. Its written in a unique style and each chapter/story is encapsulating. Originally, I was hoping that Danticat would tie all the stories together with the last few chapters. In a way, she did. Each story had some kind of relation to Ka’s father, or the dew breaker. But I was hoping more of how each person would react when they discovered who Ka’s Father was. However, I still enjoyed the existing ending as it allows the readers themselves to piece the puzzle together.

Garvey Lundy talks about transnationalism in Haiti after the Haitian earthquake of January 2010. What Haitian Americans did after the earthquake was something that I can personally relate to. In 2008, an earthquake hit China as well. It was an 8.0 magnitude earth and the destruction was tremendous. Similar to what the Haitian American did during the aftermath of the Haitian earthquake, Chinese diaspora groups also raised money to aid the Sichuan province. My family is from China and I also participated in the effort to help the affected people. We donated money and stayed updated with all the news about the earthquake. Receiving aid from the country’s diaspora group is something that happens when countries are in times of need.

This week’s readings were very intriguing and captivating in my opinion. I loved reading Danticat’s The Dew Breaker and the article about Haiti. Although as we said in class, it was a very sad book with no hope given, it was rich in religious symbolism (something that interests me a lot). I also admire Danticat’s unique writing style and use of literary features to enhance the reader’s experience. Her book was made up of a bunch of stories that together allow the reader to see the Dew Breaker from different perspectives and walks of life. Danticat is extremely creative. I disagree with those who said they did not like her. The second half of the book was the most interesting and climactic in my opinion. In “The Bridal Seamstress,” the reader gets to know about Beatrice Saint Fort’s life on the day right before she retires. She is interviewed by Aline for an article about her job as a Bridal Seamstress. This interview is very unique in that Aline does not receive straightforward answers from the bridal seamstress. Although technically Aline is the interviewer, it can be said that Beatrice interviews her as well when Beatrice asks her personal questions, causing Aline to reveal details of her life through inner thoughts. Beatrice also makes Aline go outside of the house with her to observe the block she lives on. It is during this mini tour that Beatrice reveals that an ex-prison guard lives on the block and that she would recognize him anywhere. Observing the tension and nervousness in Beatrice’s voice, Aline realizes that this man must have played a very important role in Beatrice’s life. Aline begins to wonder whether or not this guy was an ex-boyfriend or something along those lines. However, as readers we know that the prison guard is the Dew Breaker, who has made the lives of many people miserable. The story ends with Aline contemplating what she will do next in her life. She carries her own cross as well: not married, rejected by parents, feels like failure. Initially, I was quite annoyed with Beatrice because she did not answer Aline’s questions in a direct manner and acted in a very rude way towards Aline. However, when I found out that she suffered under the Dew Breaker, I felt pity for her.

The next story, “Monkey Tails,” revolves around Michel’s life. It starts out with him reflecting on his past next to his sleeping pregnant wife. He reveals his sufferings in Haiti when Jean-Claude Duvalier went into exile in France. As a young adult, Michel and his mother saw the chaos that broke out in Haiti after Duvalier left. Everyone went after the dew breakers, aka macoutes. After helping Monsieur Christophe with his broken water station faucet situation, he goes to visit Romain. Romain’s father is a macoute, who leaves Haiti so that he won’t be killed. Romain is impacted by this action because he feels unloved. So in the end Romain escapes as well, leaving Michel behind. Towards the end of the story we learn that Romain’s dad committed suicide. This story reveals the suffering, chaos and the disorders that many people suffered from due to the situation of their homeland. This story made me aware of the effect surroundings can have on a person’s life.

“The Funeral Singer” is about the lives of Freda, Mariselle and Rezia. All three of them are seeking to obtain a GED. Freda, the narrator, used to be a funeral singer who had to flee from her homeland after she refused to sing for the president. Mariselle left Haiti because her husband was shot for painting an unflattering portrait of Haiti’s president. Rezia owns a Haitian restaurant in the city and tells her friends of when she was raped by a macoute with the consent of her aunt. The lives of these three young women are very upsetting to read about, however they reveal the reality that not everything in life is a walk through the park. People carry many sufferings and go through many terrible experiences in life. This situation is much more prevalent with immigrants due to their position in society. I am not saying that others do not go through bitter moments in life, but I have seen that most immigrants have had unpleasant experiences similar to those of these three young women. This story also demonstrates that the goal of every human being is to make progress in life, to make life better. All the characters in this story and the rest of the book long to make their lives better and to leave the past behind. However, it is hard to forget about the past.

The last story, “The Dew Breaker (circa 1967)” puts the missing pieces of the book together. It reveals the previous lifestyle of the Dew Breaker as a prison guard. It starts out with him going to Bel-Air in search of a Baptist preacher who says bad things about the Haitian government. The Dew Breaker has thought about leaving the country but he wanted to go through with this order before his leaving. In this same story, we see things from the Baptist preacher’s point of view as well. We learn that his wife was poisoned and that many people do not like him or fear for his life due to the nature of his sermons and announcements. He seems to be completely against the Haitian government and wants his opinion to be heard loud and clear by everyone in the area. We also learn that the Dew Breaker decided to become a dew breaker so that he would not work in the fields like his parents. We also find out that the preacher has a stepsister, Anne. Anne is the Dew Breaker’s current wife. When I finally made the connection, I was surprised by how much mercy this woman had for the Dew Breaker. Had I been her, I would have killed him once I found out. But anyways during one of the preacher’s sermons, the Dew Breaker breaks into the church and brings with him a group of macoutes who take the preacher and beat him up pretty bad. However, after bringing the preacher back to the headquarters, he learns from his superior that he did wrong and has to release the preacher because the preacher’s offenses are not that bad. So he brings the preacher in to his office for questioning. The preacher, out of desperation, takes a broken piece of the chair and stabs the Dew Breaker’s check, dragging it down towards his chin, creating a huge, disgusting, deep wound. This causes the Dew Breaker to shoot the preacher several times. After having disobeyed his superior twice, the Dew Breaker decides to escape and runs with no sense of direction out of the headquarters. On his way he meets, Anne, who had been looking for the preacher. Anne ends up taking the Dew Breaker to his house, cares for him and ends up living with him. She and him eventually flee to the United States together. The story ends with Ka asking Anne if there is more to her father’s story.

“The Dew Breaker (circa 1967)” was a very crucial part of the book. In it we learn why the Dew Breaker became a prison guard, his inner thoughts, his guilt and contempt, and his yearning to redeem himself. We see that he gives a little boy some money as a way to buy him a future. Although as Patrick said, dew breakers are often portrayed like boogeymen, this particular dew breaker seems to have a gentle and noble side that if worked on properly can make him blossom into a kind and redeemed gentleman. So seeing that the Dew Breaker does have a noble side to him and knowing that later on he becomes a father and cares for both his wife and daughter leads me to question whether he wanted to be a dew breaker in the first place or if he was “forced” into becoming one due to his circumstances. A person just cannot be evil to be evil. As I mentioned before, this book is one of the best books I have read thus far. It was definitely more interesting and unique than the other two we have read this semester. I truly enjoyed the writing style.

In “Transnationalism in the Aftermath of the Haiti Earthquake: Reinforcing Ties and Second Generation Identity,” Lundy discusses the response of the Haitian diaspora to the earthquake on January 12, 2010. Lundy mentions how Haitians living outside of their homeland are shown to make use of political, economic , and communication ties to help their family back home. This article also investigates the impact of the earthquake on the identity of the second generation. The Haitian diaspora were deeply affected by the earthquake. Three fifths lost a loved one and two thirds wanted to move back to help reconstruct their nation. Lundy discusses transnationalism in detail, defining it as the process by which immigrants foster a multi-layered relationship that actively binds them to their country of origin while they are simultaneously fully involved in the social activities of their country of settlement. Lundy mentions that there are six interpretations of transnationalism: social morphology, type of consciousness, modes of cultural reproduction, avenue of capital, sites of political engagement, and reconstruction of a place or locality. However, Lundy does not discuss all six of them but rather focuses on the three most important ones.

Lundy starts out with social morphology, leading to an exploration of networks and connections that Haitian immigrants established with the homeland in order to respond to the devastation of their country. Haitian families acted through churches and other benevolent associations to take care of kin at home. Some opened their homes to refugees and orphans from the earthquake while others brought family members over to the U.S. Some even traveled back to Haiti to help out with the situation. Haitian churches in the U.S. and their corresponding churches in Haiti played a big role in the transferring of resources and information between Haiti and the U.S. They established church to church links that allowed migrants to figure out if their family in Haiti was okay and those in Haiti to receive relief. The church also had many benefits and fundraisers to donate money for Haiti’s relief. Besides the church, professional organizations initiated by Haitians abroad sent professional volunteers to assist those devastated by the earthquake. The Association of Haitian Physicians Abroad sent more than 500 volunteers. Partners in Health sent more than 1000 Creole-speakers to Haiti. In order to ease the sending of remittances Western Union also introduced a no transfer fee for any amount of money sent to Haiti. Some airlines allowed aid supplies to be sent free of charge and donated to Haiti’s cause through the enforcement of frequent flier programs. Communication was vital for those in the diaspora and Haiti, thus Digicel promised to replace broken SIM cards for free and provided charging stations for their phones.

Lundy also discusses the strained relationship between the diaspora and Haiti’s government. Many Haitian immigrants saw the earthquake as an opportunity to restructure the political relationship between Haiti and its diaspora. Haitians abroad were not able to partake in Haiti’s political affairs. Haiti also did not recognize dual citizenship and many politicians had huge resentments with the diaspora for leaving the country and not doing enough to help out.

In his article, Gundy also suggests that transnational ties will continue among the second generation and even third generations. The continuing flow of people back and forth will allow children of immigrants to form a link to their homeland. Initially, many Haitian immigrants and their children engaged in the cover-up process, an active process of distancing oneself from one’s Haitian ancestry. Young Haitians would want to be identified as anything other than Haitian. The reason why was because in the 1900s, the USCDC singled out Haitians as members of the 4-H club: most prone to be homosexuals, hemophiliacs, heroin users and have HIV. However, Haitian elders educated the youth and clarified many things, causing them to have a more positive view of being Haitian. Thus second and third generation Haitian Americans became long distance nationalists, in other words, people who have a claim to membership in a political community that exists beyond the territorial borders of a homeland. This process causes an emotional attachment that motivates people to political action.

The popularity of identifying as a Haitian can be seen within the college campuses throughout the nation. Many Haitian student associations were created for the later generations. Several of these clubs organize fundraising and awareness events to raise funds for the Haitian earthquake relief. Students also often discuss these topics with non-Haitians and have strong political and economic beliefs. There is definitely a complexity in identity among second generation Haitian Americans. There are some where both the parents and the children are afraid of admitting their Haitian, there is one where the parents encourage children to have national pride but children are afraid due to harassment and there are those who just do not care about the consequences and have national pride. Despite all the struggle, many Haitian Americans decided to find a way to connect with the homeland.

In conclusion, Lundy says that the earthquake caused a materialistic and psychological response on behalf of the Haitian diaspora. The Haitian diaspora came together to help Haiti in the recovery process. Through communication efforts, remittance and medical and social aid Haitians helped out a lot. I found this article very interesting as it explores many aspects and domains to transnationalism and then shows how people have been able to form a dual citizenship identity through transnational lives.

First thing: Watch The Act of Killing, if you are interested in war criminals not be serving civil justice and their integration into the community they harmed. It is about Indonesia, and it is takes more of an artistic, intimate psychological exploration into the war criminals than most traditional documentaries. The less known about the documentary going in, the more impactful the reaction. It is difficult to describe the feelings you feel when you watch- it is an experience.

Anyways, Danticat’s story takes an unexpected turn during the end of her book, which is extremely strange because you know the outcome and the big secret at the first story’s reveal. The reader realizes that Ka’s father is a dew breaker and his wife is fully aware of it since the beginning of the book. The dynamics of Ka’s parent’s relationship is strange but it seems to hold up at the beginning of the book. The dew breaker has become a caring father and husband who may not be perfect, like throwing out his daughter’s statue or his unreeling obsession with Egyptians, but he is still compassion and loving to his family and peaceful to others overall. However, the last chapter goes over to his less lovable past and what events led to the present situations mentioned earlier. This way the dynamics between the dew breaker and Anne become less comprehensible and the stories throughout the book that revolve around their relationship more contrived. Her husband’s former job was not some distant concept- she literally ran into him right after he shot her brother, and she chooses to ignore the obvious and move on with her life with him. To bridge this gap of reasoning or vengeance, Danticat uses metaphysical forces as a reinforcer to forgiveness. The dew breaker is punished by “hiding away” for his life in fear, while he is also saved by unseen forces. Dany never kills him and the death of his aunt cuts off motivation to do so, while Claude shows that to some degree people move on from killing each other, and although he was officially punished, his people still welcome him. Other suspected dew breaker, like the Emmanuel or the seamstress’s suspected follow are accepted like benevolent shadows. Women are often the doers that burden much of the weight between war and trans- immigration problems. Danticat tries to construct a frame in which Haiti can console its past and move on, as well as create this newer version of folklore for the various types of Haitians, connecting home bound and foreign bound/ born.

Lundy’s article examines the transnational actions of Haitian peoples after the earthquake in 2010. He has one especially charged sentence that he cannot just move on afterwards. The sentence in which he says in 2004 American/ Canadian supported thugs overtook President Jean- Bertrand Aristride because he posed real change for the poor. That is a hefty statement that needs a lot of proof and poses many implications.  Lundy goes on to detail all the support Haitians abroad gave to Haiti after the disaster, in the form of remittances, volunteer/ medical efforts, and hypothetical adoptions. He uses these examples to present the strength of the Haitian transnational community and its possible influence on Haiti in general. I have no doubt that Haitians across the globe did help and feel strongly motivated to help their family or brethren in the home country, but Haiti became a major global relief effort. I remember that numerous global organizations that participated in rebuilding Haiti that were not primarily under of concept of “Haitians helping Haitians.” Did global non-Haitian orientated organizations have more of an impact helping Haiti than purely the global Haitian community helping Haiti? What percentage of first/second/etc. generation of Haitian immigrants around the world contributed? He is also extremely optimistic about the level of loyalty and participation of second generation Haitians. Most admit to never having been to Haiti- identifying as an Haitian and actively participating in Haiti is entirely different. Their opinions about the situations in Haiti are handed down from their parents, I doubt if many could discuss or stay involved in Haitian affairs after their parents deaths. Also, going directly to Haitian clubs in colleges do not speak about the second generation as a whole. He is literally directing himself to people who he knows fits his theory. What about participation the other children mentioned who do not identify as Haitian and what percentage do they represent? How prevalent are these Haitian clubs in relation to the Haitian community or the school in general? They are probably tiny. I am not saying that Lundy is wrong in his optimism in the role of the Haitian transnational community, but I believe that his viewpoint is too focused for the more macro- image that he wants to create. But Wyclef Jean running for Haitian president and one of the biggest concerns is that he cannot speak Creole? I feel like there are some other glaring points there.

In his Transnational in the Aftermath of the Haitian Earthquake: Reinforcing Ties and Second-Generation Identity Garvey Lundy displays how transnationalism supports the effectiveness of a disaporic group creating change. In order to recover from much of the physical, social, economical, and political damage from the devastating earthquake, Haiti depended a great deal on transnational ties. Lundy mentions that Haiti’s situation after the earthquake followed along typical transnational lines. He deemed the multileveled social, political and economical interactions as the “transnational social field.”

In terms of providing direct aid, the bulk of the responsibility fell onto families, either through the household or through social organizations such as churches. Providing relief, many would take in injured or earthquake refugees into their own homes. Haiti also called upon many professionals and professional organizations from the US. US companies and institutions would also be lenient towards people trying to send aid back to Haiti (i.e. free money transfers, new sim cards, reduced phone bills). This was especially important, as those within the Haitian community within America, “scrambled to communicate” with loved ones back home. Political events after the earthquake also relied heavily on transnational networks. Politicians on the presidential race would advocate and make campaign visits to Haitian communities within America, displaying their support of “nationalist sentiments,” an ideal that unites Haitians within and without the motherland.

Lundy finally dives into second-generation Haitians and the effects of the earthquake on their identity. At first, he discusses similar topics to other articles we’ve read, and even quotes Nancy Foner. Many young second-generation Haitian Americans would identify either ethnically or racially, depending on the situations that they have experienced. After the events of the earthquake, however, Lundy displayed the shift from the latter to the former that occurred, as many young Haitian-Americans (especially those in college) began to react adversely to media portrayal of Haiti. Which may or may not be more unique to second-generation Haitian-Americans, is that they develop an interesting connection with their homeland, historically and politically. Many are vexed with the current political state of their homeland, and further annoyed as they focus on the political turmoil that fills their history. They grasp on to their Haitian roots, as they organize and call for change.

We also finished Danticat’s The Dew Breaker this week. Her serious and gloomy style of writing was clearly evident in this novel. Although the novel may not be a happy one, filled with moments of hope and joy, and clearly displays the different lives and situations of Haitians who experienced the Duvalier regime. The one theme that constantly stood out to me was introduced by Danticat’s character Beatrice, who said, “Everything happens when it’s meant to happen.” This idea of fate, and a hint of some divine plan, exists throughout her entire novel. It can be seen in the chapter where Dany returns to Haiti, in order to reveal his discovery of the Dew Breaker that killed his parents. It was on the night of a vivid dream, recalling the night his parents were killed, that his Aunty died in her sleep one night. It can also be seen in the final chapter, where the Dew Breaker runs into Anne only moments after killing her brother, the Pastor.

The Dew Breaker, as many of us have pointed out, ends with a twisted plot. We are told that the Dew Breaker’s wife has married a man that killed her half brother. This relationship between Anne and the dew breaker represents the dire situation in the nation and the only way to continue is to forgive. We debated in class on whether or not Anne has done the right thing to forgive the dew breaker and marry him. What I wanted to point out is the fact that the dew breaker himself has chosen to marry the sister of the man that he tortured and killed. This I believe has a meaning as well. Just as how Anne marrying the Dew Breaker represents the only way the nation of Haiti can keep moving forward, the dew breaker choosing to marry Anne is another portrayal of the nation moving forward. By marrying Anne the dew breaker is admitting to his horrible past and is cooping with it. Also, since the dew breaker represents the old regime it shows that the old regime has realized their mistake and have chosen to step down.

As for the reading by Lundy we notice a couple of things. First, Lundy talks about how the earthquake in Haiti has strengthened the transnational ties between migrants and Haiti. We notice, after the earthquake, that many Haitian Americans have stepped out of their hiding place and are not afraid to identify themselves as Haitians anymore. I believe that the earthquake’s devastation causing much grief to Haiti made many migrants sympathize with their nation. If there is a time where their nation needs them the most it is now. If the Haitian Americans did not stand up and announce their proud identity as Haitians by helping the nation recover, then the world would not have helped the nation as much as it did. If their own people living in other places were careless, then organizations in other nations would not have much motivation to aid Haiti.

Another point worth mentioning is the strong transnational tie that increased through the second generation immigrants of Haiti. One of the factors, I believe, for the increase of transnationalism by the second generation has to do with basic psychology. When an individual growing up is told to not do something, the desire to do that forbidden deed increases. Therefore, Haitians being told from when they were young to not identify themselves as Haitians gave them the desire to rebel identify as nothing but Haitian.

The Dew Breaker (Second Half)

“The Bridal Seamstress” follows Beatrice Saint Fort on the last day of her job as a bridal seamstress. She is interviewed by Aline, an intern for the Haitian American Weekly, for an article about her retirement. After a series of direct questions by Aline and rather indirect answers by Beatrice, Beatrice abruptly decides to take Aline out to see the block she lives on. During this impromptu tour, Beatrice mentions (rather angrily) that one of the houses belonged to a Haitian prison guard and that she would recognize him anywhere. Aline investigates the house and finds that it belongs to someone named Dolly who has not lived in the house for over a year. In the story, we also learn that Aline took the internship position she works in because it was the first job she was offered after she broke up with her girlfriend. The story ends with Aline contemplating about what she will do next in her life.

“Monkey Tails” follows a young Michel during the time when Jean-Claude Duvalier was forced into exile in France (in 1986). He and his mother hear people creating mobs to go after the macoutes, or dew breakers. After running away from helping Monsieur Christophe with his broken water station faucets, he goes to visit his best friend, Romain, whose father, Regulus, is a macoute. After a while, Romain decides to escape with Michel in order to make Michel “a man.” They make their way to a nearby hotel, where Romain eventually decides to flee the country but sends Michel back to his home. We eventually learn that Regulus eventually shot himself after being cornered. On a side note, this whole story is being told by present-day (or 2004) Michel who is sleeping next to his very pregnant wife.

“The Funeral Singer” follows three women: Freda (the narrator of the story), Mariselle, and Rezia as they attempt to pursue (what appears to be) their GEDs. Freda was a professional funeral singer who was asked to leave the country (by her mother) after her father disappeared and she refused an invitation to sing at the national palace. Mariselle left Haiti after her husband was shot for painting an “unflattering” portrait of Haiti’s president. Rezia owns a Haitian restaurant on the Upper West Side and recounts the story of when she was raped by a macoute as a girl. We follow them as they prepare for the final test for their GEDs and as Freda recounts portions of her life in Haiti to the reader.

“The Dew Breaker (circa 1967)” follows the “former” life of the main subject of the book, the Dew Breaker we are introduced to in chapter one. His eventual demise starts off with an order to kill a preacher in the town of Bel-Air. The dew breaker has contemplated leaving the country but wanted to carry out this one last order before leaving. During this part, we also follow the preacher, as it seems that most people know that he is about to be arrested or killed. We also learn that the preacher’s wife was poisoned just several months earlier as well as the dew breaker’s own story. Basically, he was inspired to become a macoute in order to not “work the land” like his parents did. We are also introduced to the preacher’s stepsister, Anne, who has just started a course in cosmetology.

During the preacher’s service, the dew breaker comes in with a group of other macoutes, has the preacher arrested, and has him severely beaten. However, he later learns that he made a mistake: He was ordered to kill the preacher, not arrest him. He forces the preacher to come to his “office” to warn him and let him go. The small chair that the preacher is sitting on breaks; and, in a rage, the preacher takes one of the broken wood pieces, stabs the dew breaker’s right cheek with it, and drags it down his cheek (creating a long-lasting scar). This puts the dew breaker in a rage, and he shoots and kills the preacher. However, in the process, he disobeyed the order to release the preacher since he was not initially killed.

The dew breaker escapes and meets Anne (who ran to the prison to look for her stepbrother) outside the prison. They go to his house together where he has his face fixed up. He and Anne eventually flee to the U.S. together. The story ends in the present time with their only daughter asking Anne if there is more to her father’s story.

In “The Bridal Seamstress,” I got quite annoyed by Beatrice’s personality. She would not respond to Aline’s questions properly. She took longer than usual to get ready, and she ended the interview quite abruptly. In addition, houses were somehow connected to their occupants’ occupations. However, I believe that her personality stems from something that happened in the past, as was evidenced from her “somber” face in front of the “prison guard’s house.” So, I (somewhat) forgave her by the end of the vignette.

In “The Funeral Singer,” the three women seem to idolize Jackie Kennedy. However, what is important here is that this seems to represent a motif found in the book: a longing for a better life. Here, the women remark how Kennedy could come and go from Haiti any time she pleases. However, conditions prevent the three women from ever going back to Haiti. We can see a similar longing by other characters throughout the book. Most notably, the Dew Breaker and the descriptions of his cheek scar seem to imply a longing for a better life.

In the last vignette, we see how the Dew Breaker gives a boy some money because of a longing to “buy that child a future” (194). Despite the image of a dew breaker being hostile and downright evil, it seems that this particular one possesses a rather gentle side. I was actually surprised by what he was thinking in his scene. The scene seems to bring up the question: Is the dew breaker doing what he does (killing, etc.) because of pure evil or because circumstances have forced him to act this way? I do not see how an inherently evil person could simply act this way.

Speaking on the entire book, I have to say that I enjoyed it more than any of the other books we have read. I liked how the book was not in strict chronological order. In addition, I liked how the point of view kept changing from vignette to vignette, from first-person to third-person and back to first. As I have mentioned before, I am a fan of Danticat’s writing style, and this book was no exception. The words seemed to flow together, just like poetry. So, all in all, I really liked this book.

“Transnationalism in the Aftermath of the Haiti Earthquake: Reinforcing Ties and Second-Generation Identity” – Garvey Lundy

This article examines the Haitian Earthquake in two respects: (1) considering transnationalism to examine how the Haitian Diaspora responded to the earthquake and (2) how the earthquake affected the identity of the members of the second generation. After the earthquake, transnational connections (that existed beforehand) created networks and connections that allowed those in the Haitian diaspora to quickly help those affected in Haiti. Haitian families (both individually and collectively) were able to take in orphans or even go to Haiti itself to assist in the recovery. The Haitian church enabled those living abroad to receive information about loved ones in Haiti. The author mentioned that the importance of the church is based on historical and social factors: (1) churches often follow the legacy of African spirituality and (2) reveal an apparently American contribution. Professional organizations in the United States also played a role in the rebuilding (for example, by sending medical professionals).

Lundy also mentions that the struggle by Haitians abroad to establish communications with loved ones in Haiti was one of the “most visible displays of transnationalism” (210). This was facilitated by inexpensive cell phones (namely, from Digicel), the networks for which were back up and running about a week after the earthquake. In addition, remittances played a huge role in the recovery effort. They have enabled relatives to leave Haiti temporarily (thanks to Haitians’ temporary protected status in the U.S.) and have made up a sizeable portion of Haiti’s GDP.

The earthquake also prompted a reexamination of the diaspora’s role in Haitian politics. This was following a time when the diaspora was put at arm’s length because they were seen as a threat to authority. Things have improved; however, there is still a level of suspicion of the diaspora, and Haitians are resentful of the diaspora for not doing enough for the country.

With Wyclef Jean’s attempt at entering the Haitian presidential race, the second-generation became very visible. Identity for the second-generation was originally one of distancing oneself from one’s Haitian ancestry. However, a series of negative “classifications” by various organizations actually created a somewhat positive Haitian identity. However, the earthquake caused many of the second-generation to “come out” as Haitians. These people felt an obligation to their homeland and expressed solidarity with Haiti, even though many of them have never visited the country. Despite mixed messages from parents, many have adhered to a positive image of Haiti.

I found Figure 1 quite interesting. According to the chart, almost 40% of Haitian-Americans surveyed contributed more than $100. Undoubtedly, $100+ is a hefty amount. In addition, many of these Haitian-Americans may not even be making a lot of money from their jobs. Even so, it appears that the diaspora was ready to help even if it may have been relatively difficult to do so.

This article brought up a point that I brought up in my media assignment: the tension between Haiti and the diaspora. There was an editorial in the Haitian Times that said that the diaspora was not doing enough to help Haiti. It also said that the diaspora must have resigned itself to Haiti’s fate. Reactionary comments on the Haitian Times’ social media page seemed to imply that the diaspora was not welcome in Haiti. This is an example of the suspicion that the article we have read mentions.

However, despite all this, Haitians from all parts of the diaspora did everything they could to help the earthquake-ravaged country. This seems to imply that ties still do exist between Haiti and the diaspora and that these ties are very strong. Despite external appearances, there exists a transnational connection between Haitians living abroad and their homelands that cannot be broken.

The second half of Edwidge Danticat’s The Dew Breaker told darker stories of those who survived the torture from the dew breaker. It shows the different attempts that they have made to cope with their past. They all started with the same first step: leaving Haiti. Some led a better life in America, while others let their nightmares take over. No one, not even the dew breaker could forget what happened in Haiti. Garvey Lundy also wrote his paper “Transnationalism in the Aftermath of the Haiti Earthquake” about the diaspora that the Papa and Baby Doc regimes caused how they react to trouble back home.

Beatrice is an unfortunate case where the scars from Haiti are forever stuck in her brain and she can never let go of what has been done to her. Her illusions of pain are something that Aline was an unfortunate witness to, but most importantly she was left with the important message of “ everything happens when it is meant to happen.” It is a way of coping with the past and to keep on going in hopes of something good to happen. Beatrice has helped so many brides because she was able to come to America, and maybe that is why she had to go through torture by the dew breaker, to end up in the path that life took her.

The final chapter was the most intense out of all of them. The way Anne and the dew breaker met was so crazy. The fact that they got married just blew my mind. From the dew breaker’s point of view, I understand. This is his best chance of getting out of being a dew breaker. Getting married with Anne also means he will constantly be reminded of the pain and suffering that he has caused. It wouldn’t be to the extreme that Beatrice went through, but it would be enough to deter him from going back. The fact that they had a child gave a reason and an opportunity to make amends by raising her right. It makes more sense when their relationship is taken as a symbol of the relationship between the Haitian people and destructive authoritative figures. In the end all they have is each other, the only way that Haiti can get better is if they work together. The new generation needs both to understand the mistakes of their predecessors so that they don’t repeat history.

Garvey Lundey’s article was pretty depressing. Imagining that one’s home nation was viewed world wide as a center of disaster is disheartening. Gaining self-determination did not mend the infrastructural damages of the nation as fast as its people would have wanted. The Haitian diaspora caused by Papa and Baby Doc also gave a bad image. Being one of the “four h’s” that were at risk of AIDS also screwed over the Haitian image. When they needed help the most, they just kept getting put down. Until the catastrophic earthquake, there weren’t many Haitians proud of calling themselves Haitian. It put transnational ties to use, reinvigorated national pride, and put all migrant Haitians towards one cause. Even the second-generation, American-born Haitians took pride in their roots. Unfortunately, their parents shut them down. It is understandable, since the parents were probably once at a point where they had a high level of nationalist pride before they were shut down. They fled Haiti for that reason among others. Haitians living in the native land don’t want them to influence local politics, yet they believe that those abroad don’t do enough to rebuild Haiti. Fortunately there are some parents who support their children. The youth themselves seem to not be backing down despite the harsh words from their parents. They are very determined to turn Haiti into the beauty that they imagine it as. The revitalization of Haiti depends on this movement.

This past week we finished reading the second half of The Dew Breaker and it was just as fast paced and frantic as the first half. The four chapters comprising the second half, however, felt a lot less connected to the main storyline (that of Ka and her father the Dew Breaker) than the first five chapters. I think the first five chapters put more of an emphasis on describing the people closest to Ka’s family, people who are directly in contact with them. The last four chapters seem to focus more on distant relationships and places. In fact, two of the chapters take place in Haiti instead of New York while the other two have no characters at all “related” to Ka and her family. Of course all the characters in the novel are related in some divine scheme of things, but there weren’t as many direct relationships in the second half. For example, Freda, Rezia and Mariselle have no connection to the Dew Breaker himself, but are connected to him through the turmoil and violence that occurred in Haiti due to many Dew Breakers. Even though the relationships aren’t too definitive, many themes expressed earlier in the novel are still prevalent in the second half. A big one, in my opinion, is the idea of art as a political power. In the very first chapter, we are familiarized with a sculpture by Ka, one that depicts her father as a prisoner who had suffered through the harsh times in Haiti. This sculpture reminds Ka’s father that he was not a prisoner, but one of the many Macoutes who were the driving force behind the terror in Haiti. In the final chapter, we are again introduced to art, but in the form of speech. The Preacher exclaims how his sermons, although they lead to his untimely demise, would serve as a sort of political battle cry, calling for Haitians to stand up and speak out against the injustices in their country.

In “Transnationalism in the Aftermath of the Haiti Earthquakes,” I believe there were two main takeaways. The first was that the earthquake in 2010 was one of the hardest tests to Haiti’s transnational networks. Yet, instead of folding under the tremendous pressure and stress from the problems back home, many Haitians abroad rose to the challenge and showed why Haitian transnational networks are considered the strongest across the world. Many Haitians living in the United States opened their doors for their displaced countrymen, even if they were struggling to feed their own family. Haitian institutions, such as local churches of varying religions, followed suit in providing relief. Many churches directly organized relief projects for Haiti along with providing a place for solace and comfort. Most importantly, churches helped disseminate information about family members overseas, linking up with sister parishes located in Haiti. Private businesses that catered to large Haitian populations also did what they could to help. Western Union and other money transfer businesses provided “no fee” transfers, while Digicell, the largest cell phone company catering to Haitians offered free replacement sim cards so family members could stay in contact with each other during such a disaster.

The second takeaway from the article is that the 2010 Earthquake strengthened a Haitian identity in second-generation immigrants. What was first something to hide or lie about became a badge of pride. Many second-generation immigrants took charge and lead fundraising drives in schools and other social institutions across the country. A few students’ pride helped other closet Haitians step forward and also pitch in. No longer did second-generation immigrants try to stay hidden among other cultural groups; they were proud of what their fellow countrymen were able to do and wanted to make sure they also played a role in repairing the country of their roots

Adrian Horczak

Professor Lutton

People of New York

The Dew Breaker

In “The Bridal Seamstress,” Aline is interviewing Beatrice about her job has a bride dress maker and why she is retiring. Aline was an intern who struggled finding a paying job after graduating from college. Her Mission is to describe why Beatrice is retiring from dress making. She finds out that a dew breaker is following Beatrice, so she will move making sure no one, especially one of her clients, knows where she will live. She wants to get away from that man.

The next chapter, “Monkey Tails,” describes Michel’s childhood. There is an uprising going on in the Haitian village he lives in. His friend, Romain, encourages him to become an adult. However, after his excursion with Romain to a hotel, he does not see Romain again.

In “The Funeral Singer,” Freda is a 22-year-old still in school and trying to get a diploma. She continues to be in school still at this age because she spends lots of time with her friends and does not study enough. She sings at funerals as a job. However, when she is asked to sing at the president’s funeral, she refuses because she is rebellious and joins the militia.

The final chapter describes the dew breaker and is also referred to as “The Dew Breaker.” It mentions how a priest was seized by the militia for giving sermons condemning the government. Later, when he is to be set free, he is sent to the dew breaker for questioning. He hits the dew breaker with the leg of a chair as soon as he walks in and the dew breaker gets a scar. Because of this, the dew breaker kills the priest. After that, Anne, the priest’s half sister, comforts and cares for the dew breaker. Finally, they get married and have a daughter named Ka.

The second part of “The Dew Breaker” is very confusing to me because every chapter is narrated by a different person. I have read a book that uses a similar style, but all the events and people were closely related to form one grand story line. However, second half of “The Dew Breaker” does not continue with Ka’s family, rather makes me aware of other and practically unrelated people in the story. One theme I can find throughout the book is people coping with their differences and losses. For example, Anne knows her husband and her daughter are not Catholic like her, but she gets them to go with her to the Christmas Eve mass every year. Michel also needs to cope with the problem that he does not get see his father, but really wants to. Other themes that are present throughout the book are not clear to me. Danticat was probably trying to convey a storyline through the different narrators, but she does not do such a good job with clearly linking the information together.

Transnationalism in the Aftermath of the Haiti Earthquake: Reinforcing Ties and Second-Generation Identity

News of Haiti being struck by a magnitude 7.0 earthquake spread all around the world. Haitian individuals were worried about whether their families were safe, physically and economically. The earthquake killed over 250,000 people and approximately another 300,000 were injured. Many buildings were destroyed and the whole country needed to get itself back on its feet. The situation seemed so dire that many Haitian Americans felt they should go back to Haiti. Many claimed that they would adopt Haitian orphans. Furthermore, the United States government allowed people of Haitian decent to remain in the country if they did not have documentation.

The earthquake stimulated much help from the rest of the world, but it also effected the way Haitians are viewed. Second-generation Haitian immigrants did not want to be looked at as Haitians, as opposed to the way their parents viewed themselves. People who were considered Haitian after the earthquake were looked down upon and beat up.

People really worked hard to help Haiti after the earthquake struck on January 12, 2010. This devastating event change a lot of things, but I do not understand why Haitians were looked down upon after the earthquake. Everyone should have sympathized with them because their families were effected by the tragic event. The article also mentions at one point that some Haitians think people did not do enough to help Haiti. I think they should be thankful for any help they receive even though it is expected.

Before this week I didn’t think it possible for an author to write without a singular ounce of levity. Edwidge Danticat has thoroughly corrected this assumption. Writing extensively on the narratives of Haitian-Americans, she espouses her views on events that transpire in the lives of individuals. In “Create Dangerously” Danticat explores the impact that artists have on social politics. The essay beginnings with Danticat recounting of the execution of two men by the Duvalier regimes militia. These men were executed for political reasons as such murders were common under the rule of the two Duvalier’s. The killings were meant to spread the message of fear and to serve as a warning to would be dissenters. From here Danticat explains how the Haitian people were in need of media that would inspire them to speak out against oppressive regimes. She talks about the importance of these art forms, specifically writing. Writing is one of the most powerful tools people possess in order to sow discontent among the populous, and because of this writing is dangerous. People risk their lives to read and write contentious content, and this is why it’s so important to continue producing it.

In her second essay “The Other side of the Water”, Danticat explores the difficulties that Haitians encounter when trying to move across borders. So far this semester, we’ve focused on the issues of Caribbean immigrants both domestically and abroad but we hadn’t covered the struggle that immigrants have moving freely. Every movement requires the proper documentation for everything must be accounted for. This stringent universal rule isn’t lifted even for the dead apparently. It can’t be pleasant to be stuck in one place, this goes double for those immigrants who travel illegally and are unable to return afterwards.

Moving right along to her novel, “The Dew Breaker”, Danticat by means of largely self-contained chapters discusses the issues faced by several Haitian immigrants as they live life in America. The first chapter stood out as the most poignant dealt with young Ka discovering the true nature of her father when he chucks her statue of him in a lake. I have no idea why Ka’s father would reveal himself as the “Dew Breaker” to his daughter to be honest with you, it seems like something that you’d take with you to the grave. I don’t know how this man lives with what he’s done, but you can’t just dump that information on your daughter. To me it seems like it’d just be better to pretend as though nothing happened and try to hide it as best as you can, especially because they are immigrants living in an area with other Haitian immigrants. Seriously, imagine how horrifying that is for Ka. If I found out my father was a professional torturer and murderer I don’t think anything would ever be the same, I would not care how “peaceful” he became after the fact. Yes, Nadine’s story is tragic, she committed an atrocity by the standards of her people and because of this she has been silently tortured. I cannot fathom how traumatizing having an abortion must be but I’d wager that murdering and torturing people under the moniker the “Dew Breaker” (which I learned is a Haitian colloquial term for torturer) would leave much more of an impact.

My first impressions of this book aren’t great if I’m being honest. I’m not sure where Danticat is going with these vignette like chapters. She writes with simple language and the content, as aforementioned, has absolutely zero levity. Seriously, when I was reading these first few chapters it was like the room I was in faded into monochrome. We’ve read a number of depressing tales this semester, I’m not sure I look forward to finishing this one.

In “Create Dangerously,” Danticat writes her interpretation of an execution of two men during the Haitian revolution of the 1960’s. She expands on this story,stating her role as an immigrant and as a writer who responsibility is it to tell the truth and revive the myth and heroism of a dangerous past. She compares herself to other authors, such as Camus, other French authors and Caribbean authors who often wrote about times of rebellion and had this romanticized, other worldly quality about them. She goes on with these comparisons to classical Greek literature with its anti-authoritarian nature, which Haitians performed as an act of defiance in face of the oppressive regime, and ancient Egyptian beliefs, which Danticat connects to spiritually and identifies with it on some level. She says her writing follows suit with all these great writers, exposing dangerous hidden truths, and can sometimes contradict her supposed role as an immigrant who is supposed to become an doctor- not writer. She furthers her connection as a immigrant, saying how they can maintain ties and produce change in their wistful homelands, like the two American Haitian immigrants who were executed. All of which are examples of people who have the will to resist oppressive authority, a strong theme in Haitian history.

In the “Other Side of the Water,” Danticat tells the story of her niece’s, Marius, death in America and his posthumous return to Haiti. She did not have close connections to that side of her family and came into contact with her aunt after her son died in America and she wanted to bring him back to Haiti. Her son was an illegal immigrant, which caused some legal difficulties because even dead he was considered an alien and forced to be deported. After her investigation, Danticat discovered Marius died of HIV and lived a wild lifestyle in Miami. According to Marius’ mother, her son was not misbehaving and sent her hundreds of dollars a month- an example of how illegal immigrants of send the most. After his funeral in Haiti, Danticat returned to Hatit and her relative asked if people return from when they cross the water, referring to Haiti’s large immigrant population and the larger metaphysical belief of souls transitioning to the after life. What frustrated me about this story is that Marius’ mother directly told Danticat not to write about her son and she did just that. She should have respected her family’s wishes or attempt to change names.

In her novel The Dew Breaker, Danticat combines the harsh realities of immigrant life after leaving war torn Haiti and the continuing mysticism surrounding Haitians. By mysticism, I refer to their fate in the supernatural and intense connections to symbols that stem from ancient fates in order to adapt to new circumstances and places. For example, in Water Child, Nadine expresses her grief from the abortion and the loss of her relationship with a shrine of a pebble in the water. In Anne’s story, she speaks primarily of fate and miracles, such as a women crying crystals. In Ka’s story, ancient Egyptian beliefs guide her identity and relationship to her father. In Dany’s story, his aunt Estina is blind and guides his journey like the mystic wise blind man in ancient Greek  tales. Water is an essential symbol throughout all the stories: the statue in the pond, needing a glass of water, “water child,” the drowning of relatives, living by water falls because it represents rebirth and transitioning through periods of life and metaphysical consciousness. I appreciate Danticat’s ability to weave reality with a undertone of the supernatural elements. Somehow, I did not catch the connection between Nadine’s silence with her family and the nature of her job to her silence and struggle with her accepting the consequences of her abortion, or the significance of the unlucky number 7. This just adds to the literary almost supernatural appropriateness of the stories. This type of magic extends as you read the book because you realize that all the stories are connected through their native country’s tragic past, which is reconstituting itself across international borders. It present the paradox between the beautiful homeland and its unsettling prospects and past, and the ability to create a more promising life in America while still being drawn/ repelled by your native Haitian immigrants and America itself.

Edwidge Danticat

These week’s readings were great introductions to the style of Edwidge Danticat, and what it means for her to be a writer. She makes sure her writing is worth the read; she wants her writing to be as influential as the writing of those she admires. The excerpts of Danticat’s writing that I have read are very captivating and tell a story from the time that Haiti was under the rule of the Duvaliers. She did not live in Haiti during this time, so she uses an outsider perspective of the situation. Through this view, Danticat also notices that a family in Haiti never knows the whole truth of the life of one of its members that lives abroad.

The first chapter of Danticat’s Create Dangerously: The Immigrant Artist at Work told of the ruthlessness of the then Haitian dictator “Papa Doc” Duvalier. She wrote about the execution of Marcel Numas and Louis Drouin as if she had been there. The rebellious attitude of these men had led them to be executed in front of all of Haiti. Papa Doc even called for the schools to bring the children for the execution rather than to take them to classes. These two men were not only fighters; they were also writers and prominent immigrants in the United States. They were radical activists that used their words to stir rebellion against the cruel and bloody regime of Papa Doc Duvalier.

Art and literature were two things that dictatorship tends to destroy and suppress from their reign. They know it leads to rebellious thought, but they are never fully able to take it from the ones that really search for it. Those who read literature that speaks against authority risk their lives. According to Danicat, it is up to the authors to make sure that their work is worth reading. Through her first chapter she keeps the rebellion alive, as well as the legacy of Marcel Numas and Louis Drouin. Although I do not risk my life to read this, I do believe that it was a very motivational piece.

The other chapter that was assigned, Chapter 6, also showed another thing that she focused on. She also writes about the relationship between family in Haiti and family in the United States. From the death of her cousin, she learns that the true lifestyle of someone in the United States is not really known by his family back at home. The family only sees the dedication put into sending remittances, while in truth he seemed to spend whatever he didn’t send to live a party lifestyle. For both people, the other side of the water is not clear. Another thing that I found interesting from this reading was that the aunt talked about everything told to Edwidge Danticat goes into writing. Her response was to quote another writer, “that everything in the world exists to end up in a book.” As an immigrant artist, she must take everything around her and latch on to it.

The Dew Breaker tells a story in my favorite way, from each character’s perspective. It is exciting to find the link between characters. It is also interesting to see the same situation under multiple perspectives. Ka’s father seems reformed from the cruel acts that he committed in Haiti, but those affected by his cruelty still live, and are in constant search for him. Dany has found out that his landlord killed his parents, and his landlord is Ka’s father. I think this way of writing is very complex, and she does a good job in keeping me on the edge of my seat and adding little symbols and themes to give the characters life.

Danticat’s The Dew Breaker is written in a unique style that ties in multiple stories together. I really enjoy her style of writing, since each story seems to be completely disconnected and can act as its own story, but is really part of a greater story. At first, I was confused at what was happening. I thought that the entire book was a collection of stories until I read the end of the book of miracles and the night talkers. When I realize this I also realized all the hints that each story was dropping to tie the entire story together, of “the dew breaker’s” or the torturer’ past and present. It follows this man’s dark past and his regret and how he changed from the person he once was. However, there are still some mysteries that have yet to be uncovered from what we’ve read so far. The story Seven and Water child introduces a story that doesn’t quite fit into the story, at least not yet. Danticat uses multiple stories told by different people at different times and places to give us readers a perspective on this torturer’s past and his current regret. Although there are still so many things that we don’t know that will be uncovered later on in the second half of the book, I still have so many questions that are left unanswered. Who is Eric in water child? Why did Nadine have to abort the child? Is Eric the father of Ka? Then who is Anne? It seems like she is the mother of Ka and husband to this “torturer” that the story is a based upon. But if that is so, then what is her relation to Nadine? How about the people in Seven? If Dany in Seven is the same Dany in The Night Talker, what role or connection does he have with the couple in Seven? Also, what significance does Dany’s aunt’s sudden death plays in the role of the story? Does he death strengthen his resolve to avenge his family? I have all these questions floating around right now and it’s frustrating that I don’t have an answer for that yet.

At first, what seemed like a simple story is now just a part of a bigger more complex story. It seems like a type of movie that starts out at the middle and then brings the reader on a journey to discover the truth. If I had to compare this to another work, I would have to choose the film Pulp Fiction, in which each story within the film is a story on its own, but is connected to each other in some way. Both the film and this book is a story that is incomplete without the smaller stories that make it. Like a giant puzzle, this book forces me to discover the story on my own, getting a clearer view of the story as I put the pieces together. Of all the books that we’ve read so far, I enjoy reading this book the most. Not only is her writing style clear and easy to follow, but the story is also intriguing.

Create Dangerously: The Immigrant Artist at Work

In the first section of this work, the author describes the gruesome execution of two Haitian revolutionaries who fought to overthrow the dictatorship of Fançois Duvalier. Duvalier was incredibly determined to find all of the members of the group that the two revolutionaries belonged to, Jeune Haiti. In the process, the Duvalier regime killed hundreds of their family members. The story of these two revolutionaries, Marcel Numa and Louis Drouin, is compared to that of Adam and Eve, who are exiled for disobeying god’s order to not eat an apple. It is in this sense that people, especially artists and thinkers, begin to fear that their words can be punished. What is incredibly interesting is that people began to start reading, instead of writing, to display their anger with the government. They would read the greek classics in rebellion, and find solace in these works. The author argues that it is important to “create dangerously” because it helps the people who “read dangerously.”

I thought this work was incredibly interesting in the sense that often, when I think about artists and why they make their work, I think that the artists do it as an act of rebellion themselves. What Danticat explains is that this is not always the case, and that the artists may be making art in order to give other rebellious people something to rebel with.

The Other Side of the Water

In this chapter, Danticus details her experience with immigration. When the author was younger, she was arranging a journey to the United States. She was to meet Marius in Port-au-Prince, as she was leaving from New York and he was leaving from Miami. After some complications, they never were able to meet and she never spoke to him for many years. The complications were a result of Marius not having his papers. Many years later, the author found out of his death, and began to look into what happened. She was able to get in touch with his roommate, but he did not have much information to offer other than to put her in contact with the funeral home that Marius was being held. The funeral home informed her that he died of AIDS, but they also expressed that it would not yet be possible to ship Marius back to Haiti, so he could be buried with his family, if he did not have his papers.

This passage describes just one of the issues that undocumented immigrants face. When they are undocumented, they do not have access to many of the necessary things that allow documented people to have, including the right to leave the country from which you are undocumented––even when you are dead.

These weeks readings revolved around our new book, The Dew Breaker. Create Dangerously and The Other Side of the Water in building up to Dew Breaker presented us with different viewpoint on Caribbean immigrants. Previously, we focused on the specifics of trust networks and remittences, but in these readings there was a greater focus on individual experiences and political events that expanded our knowledge on Caribbean life and struggles. Specifically, there was the struggle artists in dictatorship Haiti and the struggle immigrants had with travel and the lies they hid from family back home.

Create Dangerously, by Daniticat, describes the execution of two Haitian men, Marcel Numa and Louis Drouin. The two were Haitian immigrants living in New York where they were part of an organization called “Young Haiti” that opposed the the dictatorship in Haiti. The two were known writers and artists who spoke out against Haitian madman Papa Doc. After writing against the oppression, the two returned to Haiti to fight against Doc’s forces where they were captured. To put on a show against all those who opposed him, Papa Doc publicly executed the two young man in a gruesome fashion. Danticat focuses on this even to promote an artist’s ability to subversively oppose oppression. Furthermore, she wants to highlight the courage it takes for artists who do oppose power, as these men and women place themselves at the greatest risk to say what others cannot. From her passionate writing, one can see that Danticat was greatly influenced by these writers and the sacrifice they made for others.

The Other Side of the Water is a personal anecdote from Danticat. In this recollection, Danticat explains how she attempted to return her cousin’s corpse back to Haiti to be buried. While trying to do so, Danticat faced opposition in that her cousin, Marius, was undocumented and even if he wasn’t alive, his body could not be returned to Haiti. Beyond this, Danticat is highlighting the hidden life some people retain from their relatives. When talking to her aunt, Danticat was told that Marius was living a peaceful life working everyday and sending money home to his mother. His mother believed he was single and died from poison which she claims was the doing of his roommates. However, when Danticat did speak to Marius’ roommate, a different truth unfolded. Marius was poor, would go out many times, drinking, doing drugs, and bringing women home. Furthermore, Marius died of AIDS, which his mother did not believe. Thus, Marius was living a life of lies in that his mother knew nothing of his ordeals as he constantly lied to her. This brings up the idea that family living back at home believes that people living in another country are much better off and happy, when in fact that is many times not the case. This theme of a life of lies is massive in Dew Breaker. As we will read, Ka’s father retains the truth of his past life in Haiti away from her. Thus, we see where an influence of Dew Breaker came from with The Other Side of the Water.

The Dew Breaker begins through the event of Ka and her father. The two are driving to Miami where they are delivering a statue Ka, an artist, made of her father to a popular Haitian celebrity. While in a hotel, Ka wakes up to find her father and her statue gone.  Later that day, when her father returns, he says he threw the statue into the water because he didn’t like its portrayal of him. This however, was a buildup to a confession. All her life, Ka was told her father was a prisoner in Haiti, which is why he has a massive scar on his face. But on his return, her father tells that in fact, he worked in the prison where he was a dew breaker, and that a prisoner lashed his face after which Ka’s father shot and killed the prisoner. Ka feels betrayed by bother her father and mother and wishes her father never told her the truth as she enjoyed portraying him as a prisoner.

The novel transitions into the life of a Haitian immigrant,  Eric. Seven years prior, Eric had left his wife in Haiti to emigrate to New York for employment. When she finally comes to New York, she spends her time in the apartment because she is scared that she will get lost outside. In the apartment, she listens to the radio, cooks, and writes letters back home to her mother and father. She has to face this isolation because she doesn’t speak english.

The novel then transitions into the life of Nadine. Nadine is Eric’s ex-girlfriend who lives alone. While with Eric, Nadine had to abort her baby, which presents an overwhelming stress in her life. Nadine a works in a hospital as a nurse where she known to be an isolated person. However, Nadine also cares for her patients, an example being Ms. Hinds, who only Nadine befriends. In her home Nadine has a shrine for her lost child. Furthermore, Nadine constantly avoids talking to her parents who constantly write letters. However, at the end of the section, she finally calls her parents, although ends the conversation quickly due to her need for isolation.

The next chapter discusses Anne. Anne is Ka’s mother and she tells stories of miracles but the best miracle, she believes,  is the transformation of her husband from a torturer to a peaceful man. The chapter focuses on the family’s trip to church on Christmas Eve. Although Ka is an theist, which her parents resent, they still take her to chruch to try and infuse faith into her, Furthermore, Ka’s parents dislike her diction and which she would speak more like an adult. In church, Ka believes she spots Emmanuel Constant in the crowd.  Constant is a murderer responsible for the death of thousands, and wanted posters are riddled around New York. Constant reminds Anne of her husband in that someone might recognize him for the murderer he was, just as they recognized Constant.

The final section of this reading talks about Dany. Dany’s parents were killed by Ka’s father. Dany and his aunt were the only survivors of the fire that engulfed their house. Dany moved to New York to find his parent’s killer. When Dany found the man, he attempted to kill him but failed because he wasn’t sure if he got the right person. In telling this story to his aunt, she passed away peacefully knowing the killer of her siblings.

The first readings were “Create Dangerously” and “The Other Side of the Water” by Edwidge Danticat. In these readings, Danticat discusses the importance of art and writing as a subversive act. She begins the piece with the example of two men, Marcel Numa and Louis Drouin, who were executed by the government of dictator François “Papa Doc” Duvalier. The story of their murder is told and is a way that the reader gets a very vivid image of the scene. Then she explains that through writing this, she falls under a tradition of writers stretching back through history. She compares this recounting of disobedience to that of Adam and Eve within the bible. In writing this legend about the two men, she is continuing their struggle and their subversive mission, keeping it alive through the minds of her readers.

She has a great admiration for fellow writers like Albert Camus, especially those who create dangerously. By this she means people who write or create art to break the silence about a topic. In creating a discourse about these topics that are not discussed, they are acting in a subversive manner since there are often forces trying to keep those topics out of discourse. By discussing the crimes of the Duvalier regime they are brought into the light and is in a scene fighting against these crimes.

She also writes about the interesting idea that a dead body must have documentation in order to cross a border. I had never though about this idea before but it makes sense since the movement of bodies must be tracked. But at the same time it is strange that even in death, people are treated like outsiders and aliens. This ties into a theme that Danticat writes a good amount about, and that is the treatment of the dead. A connection she always makes when discussing this idea is to the Egyptians and the way they treated their dead, through their religious ideas and physically through mummification. It it also mentioned frequently throughout The Dew Breaker, since the father character has a fascination and almost an obsession with Ancient Egypt.

We also began our reading of The Dew Breaker also by Edwidge Danticat. In the previous reading Danticat describes this novel as “a book about a choukèt lawoze, or a Duvalier-era torturer, a book that is partly set in the period following the Numa and Drouin executions.” The novel begins with the story of Ka and her father. Ka’s parents originally are from Haiti and she feels a very strong to Haiti despite never having gone there and hearing very little from her parents about it. Danticat like in her previous pieces includes heavy themes. For her entire life, Ka’s father had told her that he had gone to prison and received his scar there. But in reality, he had been the one watching over the prisoner and had killed people during that period of his life. This changes her opinion of him greatly. This past was what pushed him and his wife to leave Haiti. As many immigrants, they wanted to leave something behind and start over in the United States.

The Dew Breaker, written by Edwidge Danticat, is a compelling novel filled with the struggles that many people from Caribbean nations experience upon their migration to other countries. The relationships between the Caribbean families and the changes in the parent generation to the child generation are most notably seen in the scenes with the father’s daughter, Ka. The daughter is a sculpture designer and artist, who creates sculptures and sells them to art enthusiasts. She is the first generation of their family and only child to be born and raised in the city of New York. This also means that she is the first generation to have not lived in her parents’ native country, Haiti. It is interesting to note how she views Haiti due to her parents. In the beginning scene, the daughter is asked for her origins, “I was born and raised in East Flatbush, Brooklyn, and have never ever been to my parents’ birthplace. Still, I answer ‘Haiti’ because it is one more thing I’ve always longed to have in common with both my parents” (Danticat 4). This particular thought of hers is very captivating in the sense that as the readers, we can see that she doesn’t have the same connection with her parents’ home country. She wants to feel connected to her parent’s in any way that she can and she wants to connect to her roots and feel like she belongs somewhere.

The daughter has a very delicate relationship with her parents. She doesn’t know much about their past because they refuse to speak about it. The daughter is now used to not asking them any questions when something weird occurs to them, such as when the mother, Anne, tends to hold her breath whenever they pass cemeteries. This is also another reason why the daughter wants to have as many connections as she can with her parents so that she feels that she can relate to them and understand their lives.

The scene in chapter Seven with the wife and the husband is the perfect example of the tendency for Caribbean families to send their loved ones one by one to the United States of America. The husband married the wife and they have been apart for over 7 years. After their marriage, he went to New York City to start working there and so that he could also help her get a Visa to come live in the U.S. with him. When the wife finally gets one, 7 years later, she comes to live in the city with him after so long. Her experiences in the city exemplify the feelings of aloneness and dependency that Caribbean migrants tend to face in the beginning of their excursions around the city. She stays cooped up in the house for most of the week and only has the weekends, when the husband is off from work, to explore the city. This whole chapter shows the sacrifices that Caribbean families tend to make to help their loved ones have a happy life. The wife and the husband sacrificed 7 years of their love marriage so that they could eventually live together in New York City. The husband also works two jobs, both at night and day as a janitor, in two different colleges so that he could send most of the money to the wife when she lived back in their native country.

In Chapter The Book of Miracles, Anne, who is the wife of the father and the mother of Ka, is the typical portrayal of a traditional Caribbean woman. She loves to go to Church and she is very religious. She forces the whole family to go to the mass on Christmas Eve even though the daughter is an atheist, which is very unusual for Caribbean people at the time. The description of the mass attenders also depicts the traditional Caribbean families; they all were religious and wearing dresses, they all said hello to other people even when they didn’t know who they were, and they were very jovial for the holidays. This novel constantly contrasts the typical Caribbean families with the atypical ones of the father, Anne, and Ka.

In Danticat’s essay “Create Dangerously: The Immigrant Artist at Work”, the execution of Marcel Numa and Louis Drouin became a televised event. School children were off from school, parents were off from work, and radio stations were all there to witness the execution of these two rebels, who wanted to overthrow the dictator François Duvalier. Artists and writers tend to become obsessed with certain stories, calling them “creation myths”. In this case, Danticat became enraptured into the story of the execution of two guys who went against the highest authority in that region. Danticat explains the dangerous relationship that both the readers and the authors form to combat the absolute rule of dictators and other unfair authorities. The author has to gain the courage to write about sensitive topics they know would anger the authorities. However, the reader also has to gain the strength to open the book and to delve into its deep depths. Writing for these activist authors is a form of direct disobedience to authorities, known as to create dangerously.

In Danticat’s essay “The Other Side of the Water”, Marius, who is her cousin, was found dead in Miami. After calling his roommate, she found out that he was a party type guy, spending away all the money he earned. He died with only $60 in his pocket and he died from AIDS. Tante Zi, who was the mother of Marius, received her dead son’s body back in their native country and she buried his body. The term “the other side of the water” in Haiti means the eternal afterlife. Tante Zi explains to Danticat that dead people should be buried in their home countries, showing the religious beliefs that Caribbean people tended to have.

“Create Dangerously: The Immigrant Artist at Work” and “The Other Side of the Water” by Edwidge Danticat

By examining her two essays, “Create Dangerously: The Immigrant Artist at Work” and “The Other Side of the Water,” we get a solid introduction to Edwidge Danticat’s life and writing style. While the former provides details about how and why she views her own writing as a rebellious art form, the latter provides a deeper look into her personal life. In the first essay, she starts off by discussing the public execution of Marcel Numa and Louis Drouin, two resistance fighters of the Papa Doc regime. She moves on to discuss various books and writings, from within Haiti and around the world (she even contemplates books by Sophocles and Camus). The key theme separating these things is that the writings were subdued forms of rebellion. Whereas the two men were caught for being explicitly rebellious, art was much more implicit. No one expected the Haitian people to seek a sense of rebellion, and thus unity, through this art form. The second essay we take a look as Danticat is tasked with taking her cousin’s corpse back to Haiti in order to be buried. In it, many of the major themes we discuss in class appeared. Out of all the themes, the idea of person being an alien, even after death, really stood out to me. After it was decided that her cousin would be taken to Haiti to be buried, Danticat needed to provide papers and proof of existence for her cousin’s corpse to be able to travel. Since her cousin entered the country illegally, he did not have the necessary paperwork. When Danticat questioned why this process why so complicated, arguing that at this point her cousin was nothing more than a “cadaver,” the funeral director said, “[It’s] because he’s an alien.” The director’s stark use of the present tense shows that even after death a person can still be an alien.

The Dew Breaker by Edwidge Danticat

In her novel, The Dew Breaker, Danticat writes about the life of a former dew breaker, or a torturer during one of Haiti’s political regimes, his family and the lives of the people around him. The style of this novel reminded me of Paule Marshall’s Brown Girl, Brownstones, in which the plot is centered on a single family. Whereas Marshall’s book travels forward in time and mainly takes place in one setting, Danticat jumps around in time, and utilizes not only New York, but also Haiti as major settings. As I read through this book, which stayed true to Danticat’s serious and heavyhearted style of writing, I could not help but identify the major themes that appear. On a literary level, the ideas of secrets, family, death, and art appear in each chapter (noting that each chapter particularly has a unique plot). Yet, by reading on sociological or anthropological level, one can identify similar themes to ones found in our weekly articles. The one I want to focus on is the creation and maintenance of transnational networks. For each family or person that the book looks at, you can identify the existence, or lack thereof, of some transnational link to Haiti. Looking at the Beinaime family, because the father did not want to recognized as a dew breaker, he and his wife decided to abandon any transnational ties. Thus their immigrant journey is much more stereotypical, where they totally leave their life behind in Haiti, and live almost in total seclusion within America. The next case is between Nadine and her parents. This can be identified as mainly economic transnational tie. Although her parents want to connect with her on a social level, she refuses to do so. She may send remittances back to them, but she does not write letters back to them, or call as much as they’d like her to. This is very different when comparing to the case of Dany. He had the most clear and constructed transnational network. His was based on social, economic and cultural aspects. He kept in touch with his aunt by paying someone to tend to her needs and check up on her. Through this person, Dany was able to ensure his aunt’s welfare. In terms of culture, although Dany had lived in New York for a while, he did not abandon his culture. As such, he was able to mingle in the community, understanding the language and the traditions. This differs from Claude, who had a transnational network based on nothing more than blood. He has a much harder time fitting into the small Haitian village.

In all the readings of this week, the overall motif was the recurring distressing scenes described in Danticat’s writing. In the essay, “Create Dangerously” Danticat talks about the barbaric executions of Marcel Numa and Louis Drouin, who tried to aid in the coup to overthrow the dictatorship. This sets the abhorrent and dreadful setting of Haiti, along with the other harsh conditions witnessed by the individuals during the time. This led many of them to migrate to America, however, the immigrants still faced problems here, as seen with Eric’s wife in “Dew Breaker.” In chapter two of “Dew Breaker,” Eric’s wife faces the hardships of being an immigrant by being essentially stuck at home, incapable of exploring her surroundings, due to the hardships in communication. This reveals how the hardships were far from over for the immigrants trying to escape their previous deplorable conditions back home.

In the second reading, “The Other Side of the Water,” Danticat persists to distress the reader by revealing the harsh conditions for the immigrants. In this reading, Danticat mentions the passing away of her cousin Marius due to AIDS. Danticat focuses on the idea of how hard it was to send Marius’ dead body back home to Haiti, because of legal issues due to the fact that he was a undocumented resident in the United States. Danticat emphasizes how these actions were racist, and ostracizing the immigrants, treating them as unequals, even after they have passed away! This goes to prove the poignant conditions of racism and unrest in the community amongst the immigrants during this time.

In the “Dew Breaker,” Danticat continues to topple on the grievous encounters of the immigrants, centralizing it around the family of Ka. Ka is the daughter of Anne and her torturer father, previously from Haiti. The central disturbing theme of the book revolves around the idea of family relationship between Ka and her father, along with redemption. The story is quite disturbing considering that a daughter learns the true nature of her father, and realizes that he was not a prisoner, but actually a torturer. Along with being a torturer, Ka’s father killed numerous people back home in Haiti, and that blood will probably never wash off. The theme of redemption is emphasized in the chapter “Night Talkers,” in which Dany seeks redemption by wanting to kill Ka’s father, whom he suspects to be the person responsible for killing his parents.

Along with the disconcerting discovery of Ka’s father true identity, Danticat imbeds numerous other perplexing instances in the book. In the chapter “The Book of Miracles.” the grotesque character of the Emmanuel Constant, who killed thousands of innocent people back in Haiti, is mentioned as having been seen by the church by Ka. In “Water Child” the disturbing mentioning of aborting a baby along with ideas of complete isolation and depression are mentioned which discomfort the reader extremely. This is seen throughout the chapter, as Nadine is continuously reminded of abort her baby, which goes against the norms of Haitian tradition, which continues in the disturbing mood established through Danticat’s writing. In all, Danticat imbeds numerous serious/stoic instances of extremely distressing scenes into her writing, leaving to room for comfort for the reader.

The readings for this week were very worthwhile and interesting. I enjoyed each and every one of them, especially the 120 pages of The Dew Breaker. Each text brings about ideas about the complexity of immigration. It involves so many things such as the development of a dual identity, where you present yourself as one person to your family members back at home while you are a completely different person where you live. Also, many times people immigrate because of terrible circumstances in their homeland, which adds that bittersweet feeling when referring to the homeland. Taking my parents as an example, they miss their homeland because of the culture, traditions, moral and familial atmosphere. However, once people start talking about Ecuador’s bad side, such as the country’s politics and economic situation, my parents immediately say, “Thank God we moved to New York City and do not have to deal with that anymore!” It is shocking to me how there are many complexities and issues behind immigration. What I have noticed is that many times immigrants have double the burden when compared to other people. They do not only face issues related to immigration but like the rest of the people they have to also face the consequences of bad decisions. For example, I have an uncle who immigrated to the United States in the 1990’s. His idea was to come to New York City, work very hard, make a lot of money and then go back to live with his wife and two children. However, once he arrived to New York, he became involved with another woman and left behind his first family. After a period of time, he wanted to return with his wife but his wife rejected him. Besides this, he could not get a good job because employers were racist towards him. This just goes to show that immigration has a lot of emotional, social and economical consequences on both the immigrant and his/her family.

In “Create Dangerously,” Danticat discusses the terrible way in which Marcel Numa and Louis Drouin, two Haitian men that lived in New York and returned to Haiti to fight against the dictatorship, were executed. The reason why she talks about these two men is to raise awareness of the ways that people secretly and sneakily rebelled against oppressive higher power, be it through subversive pieces of literature, actual protesting and riots, or through plays. On the superficial level, literature and the arts may not seem like successful ways to rebel against a higher power, but these things have the ability to gather a huge group of people with similar ideas that want change. I find it interesting how Danticat says that both writers and readers of subversive literature are courageous. Sometimes I think only writers are the ones that are risking themselves when they write this literature. However, as it turns out, readers are also in danger when reading this because ideas are spread through literature. And what the oppressive higher power does not want is for the successful spread of their opponent’s ideas. Ultimately, the writers of subversive pieces have to sacrifice their safety, stability and social standing so that the people could become aware and form coalitions to fight for justice. I was personally struck with how Danticat was able to narrate these executions as if she had been a witness to them. I guess that the death of these two men must have had an impact in her life as a writer, just to see how powerful writing is and that it leads people to ultimately sacrifice their lives.

“The Other Side of the Water” reminded me of Everybody is doing Fine, a movie with Robert DeNiro, where the father goes on a trip to visit his children, only to find out that each of his children has kept things hidden from him. Each child tries to make it appear as if he/she is more successful than he/she really is. Once he discovers the truth it makes him realize that he was living on the other side for way too long. It is a very sad movie, which is why I was upset reading about Marius. Danticat had a lot of difficulty in getting his corpse sent back from Miami to Haiti. Since Marius was undocumented, he needed documentation to be sent back to Haiti. Also, since Marius died from AIDS, there were special procedures that needed to be taken. There are a lot of questions raised from the situation in which he died. Was he gay? Was he poor, rich? Did he do drugs? What did he spend his money and free time doing? I find it significant how distance makes people who love you suffer, especially when bad things happen and they found out your secrets. The following quote touched me a lot: “Faraway family members realize that they are discovering—or recovering—in death fragments of a life that had swirled in hidden stories” (Danticat 94). People who live back in the homeland tend to believe that their immigrant family members are so much better off than they are. Although this may be true in the economic sense, SOMETIMES, it may not be true in way of life. My parents always say how back in Ecuador life was easier and more fun to live despite tough economic situations. Also, it surprised me how illegal immigrants still need to account for their illegal status even after their death. How sad is that?

The first 120 pages of The Dew Breaker were very interesting. The book is a very unique piece of literature, comprised of vignettes. The first half contains “The Book of the Dead,” “Seven,” “Water Child,” “The Book of Miracles,” and “Night Talkers.” Each of them are short stories about different parts of people’s life. Many of the events are upsetting and unfortunate. In “The Book of the Dead,” we learn about a narrator and her father. The narrator is an art sculptor who is trying to sell her art to Gabrielle Fonteneau. However, her dad does not like the sculpture of himself, gets rid of it and then tells his daughter many secrets he has kept from her. This story is very sad. In “Seven” we learn about a tenant in the basement of what seems to be the house of the narrator and her father from the first vignette. He lives with two roommates and is preparing for the arrival of his wife whom he has not seen in a long time. He is happy that he is going to get back together with his wife and reignite the passion in their relationship. However, the vignette ends in a sad tone because the couples seems distant once they find each other. “Water Child” talks about Nadine, a nurse who works in the Ear, Nose and Throat department at a Brooklyn hospital. She seems to be distant from everyone in her surroundings and from her family back in the homeland. She has also had an abortion and does not feel good about having committed one (which is why she created a memorial for the baby). She cares for an elderly woman who is discharged from the hospital in the end.

“The Book of Miracles” is about Anne, the wife and mother of the father and narrator from the first vignette. The story is mainly about Anne’s perspective of her family during a Christmas Eve mass. There are repressed feelings that she has and does not let it out so that they could realize what she thinks about them. Instead she keeps her true feelings hidden behind her religious personality. The story ends with the Christmas mass ending. “Night Talkers” is the saddest one out of all of them because it involves a guy named Dany who goes back to his homeland to visit his blind aunt, the one who raised him after his parents passed away, to tell her that he found the man responsible for his parents’ death and her blindness. However, the same night he told her that, the aunt passes away.

What makes this book so appealing is that although each vignette can stand on its own without the support from any other text, all of them flow very nicely when they are together because they are each connected in some way. If you pay attention to the small details, one detail in one story is connected to the detail in another. Danticat makes the reader feel suspense and a genuine urge to want to know more about the characters in each vignette. We only get snippets of details about the lives of these people in each vignette, which is why we are motivated to continue reading. If only more books could be like hers.

Out of the three books we have read, Danticat’s The Dew Breaker has been my favorite so far. I really like her style of writing. It is simple but very effective and powerful. The book is written in a series of stories that focus on different people and time periods, but all come back to one character. It is an interesting way to see different sides of essentially one story. Danticat was able to capture the issues and troubles facing this man in the past, present and future. I think she was able to express the regret and darkness of the father/husband’s past. It was still haunting him and I’m assuming it will be brought up as a major issues in the second half of the book because it seems that Dany is on to him. I found it really interesting how Dany was brought up earlier in the book and then intertwined into a later chapter. The way the chapter “Night Talkers” ended with the death of his aunt was shocking. I’m curious to know why Danticat chose to include the death of the aunt and whether there is a symbolic reason as to her passing. One question that I had was: was the man Ed who was seeing Nadine actually Anne’s husband and Ka’s father? He seems to be living multiple lives almost with the way the chapters are written, which show him at different stages in his life. I think Danticat does a great job of keeping this mysterious past hidden, only revealing a little bit at a time through the experiences of the people around this man. He was never explicitly named, although it say he did change his name, so was his first name previously Ed? I think Danticat avoids naming him to provide a sense of ambiguity and to make the reader connect the dots. I am very curious to see if Dany will confront him and what will unfold in the future. I feel bad for Anne because she seems to be tied into a lifestyle of fear which she didn’t sign up for, and their daughter Ka is finding out so much about her father which can make her life seem like a lie. Danticat works off of the interaction of the characters and it’s a great read.

Danticat’s other pieces Create Dangerously and Other Side of the Water also played on the past, present and future. She analyzes relationships to kinship and family in Other Side of the Water. She explores the idea of being an “alien” and not fitting in within a country, and even within family. I think the cousin keeping his disease a secret is similar to the main character of Dew Breaker keeping his past a secret. In Create Dangerously, I found a connection between the main character and Ka. They are both artistic and express their emotions through their work. In Create Dangerously, it was more about a form of protest and a way to say that the people will not be silenced. It promotes the sense of community in saying that everyone needs to come together to fight against the suppression, and this is done through art forms such as literature and theater.

The Dew Breaker begins by introducing two characters, a father and his daughter. The father remains unnamed throughout the first half of the novel because his character is still a mystery. His own daughter, Ka didn’t find out about his past until she got older. Therefore, when Ka created a sculpture of him, resembling a prisoner, he threw it away under the lake. The water holds significance in the novel because water represents a connection between life and death in Haitian culture. Water acts as a link where the dead can cross over to meet their family or return to Africa. That is why when the father submerged the sculpture under the water; he was actually getting rid of his old life. Ka was always told that her father was a prisoner in jail that was how he got the scar on his face. However, he was actually a torturer who was given the scar when a person he was torturing attacked him.

The novel transitions into the life of a man named Eric. Eric is a Haitian immigrant that has been apart from his wife for seven years. He came to New York to get a job and eventually to acquire a green card for his wife to move from Haiti to New York. Eric is actually one of the tenets of the father in the first part of the novel. Eric’s wife finally arrived in New York to be reunited with her husband. When she came she carried a significant amount of food and other accessories that got confiscated by the airport. The wife spends most of her time in the apartment because she is scared that she will get lost while venturing outside. In the apartment, she listens to the radio, cooks, and writes letters back home. This describes the life of Haitian immigrants. She has to face these hardships because she does not speak the language.

The novel then talks about a woman named Nadine. Nadine is Eric’s ex-girlfriend who lives alone and in separation of her family. She faces mental stress and instability because she aborted the baby that she had with Eric. Nadine also works in a hospital as a nurse in the Ears, Nose, and Throats department. This department in the hospital deals with people who can’t talk because they undergo laryngectomy. A woman in particular, Ms. Hinds, falls under the supervision of Nadine. Nadine’s situation is comparable to Ms. Hinds because she also can’t speak. Nadine is shunned for aborting her baby because it goes against the Haitian culture. She restricts communication with her parents and everyone else around her. She is constantly reminded of the abortion and it haunts her deeply.

Anne is the next character that is described. Anne is the mother of Ka. She is given a name in this section of the novel because it is focused on her viewpoints. Anne loves to tell stories of miracles but the best miracle she has ever experienced is the transformation of her husband from a torturer to a peaceful man. Anne goes to church with her family on Christmas Eve. She describes that every year this is the best time of the year because it is the only time her husband and daughter goes with her to church. In church Ka, spots a man that looks like Emmanuel Constant. Emmanuel Constant is a murderer that led a Haitian death squad and is wanted in New York. Constant reminds Anne of her husband in that someone might recognize him the same way they recognized Constant.
The final section talks about a man named Dany. Dany is the son of two parents that were killed by Ka’s father. Dany who moved to New York, returned to the Haiti countryside to tell his aunt that he found his parent’s killer. Dany and his aunt were the only survivors from the fire that engulfed his house. After the incident his aunt went blind. Dany found where the man was living and attempted to kill him but failed because he wasn’t sure if he got the right person. In telling this story to his aunt she passed away peacefully one night. She died in knowing the killer of Dany’s parents.

After reading the first half of The Dew Breaker I began to put together why we read those selected chapters from Danitcat’s collection of essays. I felt like I was introduced to her style of writing, which I believe feels rush, but in a very good way. As I was reading the novel, I kept trying to read faster, hoping to keep pace with the events that were unfolding in the story. Our two introductory essays on Danticat sort of braced me for what was to come. In “Create Dangerously,” we were introduced to two men, Marcel Numa and Louis Drouin, who were basically made martyrs by the very government they sought to tear down. The leader of the government, “Papa Doc” Duvalier, wanted to make an example out of the men; anyone who decided to stand against him would face the same consequences. I think this essay is incredibly powerful, especially in a modern context. All over the world there are many who face injustices everyday, and these victims are left virtually powerless, except for the power of art. By art, I don’t mean paintings, but mean all sorts of arts, such as writing, music, performances and many others. These arts reach global scales and peacefully bring attention to many of the problems faced in our world. Ironically, the song mentioned at the beginning of the second essay, “The Other Side of the Water,” happens to be one of these songs. “Beds Are Burning,” by Midnight Oil, is a protest song that calls for the returning of Australian land to the native peoples who occupied the Australian deserts. Modern artists, to raise awareness about climate change, recently even covered the song. Using a catchy song, these issues were propelled to the spotlight, by people who would be otherwise powerless.

Moving into the novel, I was sort of confused after reading the first fifty or so pages. At first, it felt like each chapter was very unrelated to the last. For example, one moment the reader is with a mother and her family at Christmas mass, and the next they are under a hot red sun in the Haitian mountains. As I said earlier, it feels like you are taken on a thrill ride, one you really don’t have much control over. As for the content of each chapter, they feel like vignettes; each one simply starts, focuses in one a specific person, ordeal or location, and then quickly ends without much closure. It took me a hundred or so pages to realize what was actually going on. Each story is very much related; in fact, many people in each chapter end up having very profound effects on another person in a later chapter. The constant between the first half of the book appears to be a single family, that of Ka’s. Ka’s family does not seem like the typical immigrant family we have been studying. Her father left Cuba after working in a prison, where he brutally hurt and occasionally killed prisoners, while we only know that her mother is a devout, church going Catholic.

Even though I’m just halfway through the book, some serious themes seem to be present. One that seems to be in every chapter is on family, and how your family members will always be with you, regardless if you want them to or not. Ka, though she resents her father, is still his daughter and is bonded by blood, just as Dany, who lost his aunt, is still bonded to his village “family” through a place of origin. Another theme that just starts to pop up towards the end of the “Night Talkers” chapter is retribution and revenge. Dany went to New York, and after finding his parents’ killer, devoted his life to exacting revenge. Even though he had the chance to kill Ka’s Father, he decided not to, whether it was because he would be guilty if it was the wrong man, as he says, or because he experienced a sort of moral dilemma, perhaps wondering if the fathers death would really fill the hole left inside him by the death of his parents.

“Create Dangerously: The Immigrant Artist at Work” and “The Other Side of the Water”

In the beginning of the essay “Create Dangerously,” Danticat recounts the brutal executions of Marcel Numa and Louis Drouin, two Haitian men from New York who returned to Haiti in order to topple the dictatorship of François Duvalier. She compares these executions to the secret performances of “subversive” pieces of literature during this time period. Both involved disobeying a higher authority and (potentially) facing the punishment that came along with doing so. The purpose of these secret performances was, according to Danticat, to “convince them [the people] that they would not die the same way Numa and Drouin did.” However, the courage of the reader can be compared to the courage of the writer. She states this by saying that the writers of these works:

“Create dangerously, for people who read dangerously” (10).

That is, someone somewhere will risk their life to read these works. Thus, according to her, it is only right that the author write just as dangerously. She goes on to say how the immigrant artist must always ponder movement on a global scale as well as the deaths that brought them to where they are now. Thus, she sees the deaths of Numa and Drouin as sacrifices because their deaths motivated many (including Danticat’s parents) to leave Haiti and lead a better life elsewhere.

First of all, I was struck by the introduction. She recounted the executions as if she herself was there and described the men as if she knew them. It felt as if the executions were something she lived by and was grateful for. It was because of their executions that she and her parents migrated to the United States. It was because she and her parents migrated to the United States that she was given the opportunity to write about these executions. She called this story her “creation myth” (5), and it makes sense that she would call it such.

I agree with the statement: “Create dangerously, for people who read dangerously” (10). It seems only right that those who risk their lives to read something have the opportunity to read something that is “worth” the risk. I do not mean to say that reading something on the safer side is not worth it. However, considering that such an action might be subversive to authority and can have deadly consequences, it makes sense that the author should write something just as subversive.

I was also struck by the prose in which Danticat writes. Word after word, line after line. It all seemed to flow together nicely. Although it was short, it seemed as if Danticat was easily able to get her point across.

In the second essay, Danticat recounts the events after the death of her cousin Marius, including the difficulties she had to face in order to have his body sent back from Miami to Haiti. Since Marius was undocumented, he needed special papers in order to leave the United States. In addition, since he died from AIDS, there were special procedures that needed to be followed. Eventually, with money wired from Marius’ mother, the body was eventually sent back to Haiti.

One thing in particular that struck me about the second essay was the question Danticat posed when hearing that her dead cousin would need papers to exit the country since he was undocumented:

“Were we still aliens in death, I asked, our corpses unwanted visitors still?” (91)

Are we still aliens even though we have left this world through death? Are we still considered aliens whether dead or alive? Will we ever belong? It seemed as if, through that one question, she was asking a multitude of other questions. It looked like she was questioning the purpose of Marius’ existence in that one question: if he ever belonged or if he will ever have a chance at being treated “normally.”

The Dew Breaker (First Half)

The first half of The Dew Breaker is comprised of five vignettes: “The Book of the Dead,” “Seven,” “Water Child,” “The Book of Miracles,” and “Night Talkers.”

In “The Book of the Dead,” we see that the narrator’s father has gone missing and has taken with him a statue that they were supposed to sell to a famous actress, Gabrielle Fonteneau. The statue, called Dad, is a wood-carved depiction of the narrator’s father. When he returns, we learn that he threw the statue into a lake because he feels like he does not deserve the recognition. He reveals to his daughter that, although he did spend time in a prison, he was not a prisoner. Instead, he was a torturer (a “dew breaker”) and killed many people. It was on this job that he received a deep scar on his right cheek. Without the statue, the narrator and her father still go to Fonteneau’s house to tell her that the statue is gone. Fonteneau is clearly disappointed.

“Seven” follows a tenant in the basement of what seems to be the house of the narrator and her father from “The Book of the Dead.” He lives with two roommates, Michel and Dany, and is preparing for the arrival of his wife, whom he has not seen in seven years. He left for the United States the day after their wedding and has been working to get a green card and bring his wife over. Both the narrator and his wife seem to be joyful at their reunion. They even go out for a stroll through Brooklyn. However, the vignette ends with signs of a strong disconnect between the two.

“Water Child” follows Nadine, a nurse who works in the Ear, Nose, and Throat ward at a hospital in Brooklyn. Nadine seems to be disconnected from everyone around her and has even received the label of “not a friendly woman” (58). She even tries to avoid calling her parents despite their numerous letters asking her to do so and keeps the television in her apartment on all day to hear some voices. We also learn that Nadine had a relationship with a man named Eric, became pregnant, and had an abortion. As a memorial to the unborn baby, she has created a small altar with a drawing of a baby, microcassettes with messages from Eric, and a glass of water with a pebble in it. She cares for a woman (referred to as Ms. Hinds) who has gone through a total laryngectomy and who is discharged from the hospital at the end of the vignette.

“The Book of Miracles” follows Anne, who is on her way with her husband and grown daughter to Christmas Eve Mass, something they do every year when the daughter is home for Christmas. During the mass, the daughter sees someone who looks like Emmanuel Constant, a man who set up a death squad after the exile of Haiti’s president and killed thousands of people. Anne confirms that the man is not Constant but worries that someone might be looking the same way at her husband (who used to be a “dew breaker” or torturer). The vignette ends with the Mass ending, and the daughter remarking that it’s the same thing every year.

“Night Talkers” follows Dany, one of the roommates from “Seven.” Dany is traveling through Haiti to visit his aunt. The aunt, Estina Esteme, raised Dany after his parents died and the aunt herself was blinded when their house was set on fire by a dew breaker. On his visit, he meets with many villagers as well as Claude, a boy who was deported from the United States and killed his father. Dany later reveals to his aunt the real reason for why he visited: He found the man who killed his parents and is now living in the same man’s basement. However, just after this revelation, the aunt dies. In a conversation with Claude, Dany finds out the reason why Claude killed his father: His father took drugs that Claude was hustling for someone else and shot him because he would not give them back.

I liked how, even though each vignette could probably stand on its own, they are all connected in some way. In “Water Child,” it is mentioned that Nadine had a relationship with a man by the name of Eric who was a night janitor at Medgar Evers College (62). The man in “Seven” was mentioned to have many lovers and was also a night janitor at Medgar Evers College (38). In addition, we see that the man in “Seven” changed his phone number when his wife was about to arrive. When Nadine tries to call Eric, she finds out that his number has also changed. So, it seems that Eric is the man we follow in “Seven.”

In “The Book of Miracles,” Anne seems to be the mother of the narrator from “Book of the Dead” and wife of the father from the same story. This is because Anne repeatedly mentions that her husband “worked in a prison, where he hurt many people” (72), implying that her husband is the dew breaker.

In “Seven,” the men are living in the basement of the house of the narrator and father from “The Book of the Dead.” We know this because one of the men, Dany, mentions (in “Night Talkers”) that he is living in the basement of the dew breaker’s house and that the dew breaker is a barber. In addition, Anne mentions in “The Book of Miracles” that they rented the rooms in their basement to “three younger Haitian men” (76), who it seems are Eric, Michel, and Dany.

As with the essays, I was struck by the flow with which Danticat writes. The writing in The Dew Breaker seems like poetry because the words flow together so well. I also like how, even though the dew breaker is the subject of this book, he has an air of mystery surrounding his character. We still don’t know much else about him other than that he tortured many people. However, his presence seems to affect (albeit indirectly) the characters in all of the stories.

Danticat- Create Dangerously

Danticat begins this chapter by describing two Haitian men getting ready for their execution. These men were members of a group that organized guerillas against the Haitian government. One thing that is important to note about these men is that both of them were immigrants that live in the United States. As the essay continues, it discusses the topic of the battle between the oppressed and the oppressors. She mostly focuses on how the arts battles corrupt regimes. There are many authors in Haiti that write against the government. Even though they understand this is illegal, they still do it in hopes that people read it. Danticat explains that people do read it. They understand that they can get in deep trouble if caught, but people still read because the authors’ courage inspired them. We also notice that there were other forms of art that spoke against the government such as plays. These plays would be held in secret theaters and spoke out against the government. These art works and literature were created with great caution and were created in absolute secrecy in order to effectively disobey authority.

Other Side of the Water:

In this chapter, Danticat talks about the death of her cousin. Her cousin, Marius, was an immigrant from Haiti that lived in Miami. He moved to Miami by boat. So, Danticat’s cousin did not have the luxury of mobility that Danticat enjoyed. He was stuck in Miami and if he were to return to Haiti, he would not be able to come back to the states. Therefore, when he died and his body was requested to be transported back to Haiti a few obstacles got in the way. Before his body was sent back to Haiti, Danticat had to provide quite a few documentations. These documentations included his passport, information about his property, and information about the disease he carried. At the end of the essay, after Marius’s mother received the body back in Haiti, she begins to allude to the water that once separated her from her son. The water is an important symbol in Haiti. It is a symbol of connection with Africa and at the same time it is a barrier that isolates Haiti.

Reflection:

One of the things that really got me thinking and made me contemplate a bit was the scene where Danticat had the conversation with Dr. Freedman about transferring Marius’s body to Haiti. Danticat says:

“He’s a dead man whose cadaver needs to be shipped to the country where he was born. Why is it so complicated?” I asked.

“In part,” he answered calmly, “because he’s an alien.”

Were we still aliens in death, I asked, our corpses unwanted visitors still?

How can two dead bodies be treated differently? At the end of the day the dead body of Abraham Lincoln is as useless as the dead body of a slave. Yes they might have held different statuses before death, but now their bodies are nothing but useless corpses. I just found it very disturbing to see that even after death people are still labeled and categorized.

While a number of pertinent issues were discussed in this weeks set of readings I felt as though the disparity of cultural attitudes between Caribbean’s and American Blacks was the most interesting. Caribbeans by and large have stronger connections with their countries of origin. This makes quite a bit of sense seeing as Caribbeans living in the United States are usually only separated from their homelands by a few generations at maximum. American blacks usually have been here for hundreds of years and many generations. As such, even though they originally came (re: were taken) from Africa the bonds that connect them to their homeland are usually much less pronounced.

When presented with the struggles of being an American Caribbeans have the support network of their paesani and family in place to ease the transition and provide them with an “escape” should living here prove too difficult. They tend to reside in ethnic enclaves to insulate themselves from American society. This is often the case for any immigrant group that comes here in substantial numbers. Blacks in America don’t segment themselves nearly as much along national lines, they have all shared a similar story in this country regardless of where they might have came from hundreds of years ago. Instead of looking for support networks, they generally tend to rely on traditionally black institutions. Among the black population there is a much higher reliance on solidarity and “working within the system” because they had no home country they could go back to. As such they put much more importance on trying to change conditions domestically. This fundamental difference in mentality led to people identifying stronger and stronger with their own.

Another equally interesting concept discussed in this weeks readings is the disparity between female and male inculcation within West Indian households in the United States. It comes as no surprise that women have had a harder time trying to build a life for themselves when migrating to a new country. What does come as a surprise, however, is how female-centric the West Indian family paradigm is. Women seemed to be looked upon in a more respectful light even though they were relegated to the stereotypical “female” lines of work. Boys coming from these families faced the brunt of racial discrimination, as such their behaviors became polarized into “acting white” and “acting black”. In each case acting in that manner promotes a sense of racial solidarity and, to me, seems like a defense mechanism to protect them from the harsh realities of discriminatory American society. Men were expected to venture out into this intimidated new society while females were generally more insulated. While this was the case, women were the ones who held the family together, established the support and trust networks and paved the way for more members of the family/community to come to America. In this vein I feel like the women coming from the Caribbean had a much greater impact than the men due to their responsibilities including being caretakers, breadwinners, and anchors in the community.

In Caribbean Transnationalism As a Gendered Process, Ho describes the role of Caribbean women.  She refers to them as “reluctant matriarchs”. While Caribbean women may be independent, they are not necessarily dominant. Men are perceived to be dominant, however they most often work low-paying jobs, and it would be unrealistic to expect that they be sole breadwinners for the family. Women uphold multiple jobs and are still expected to take care of the children and tend to the needs of the household.

They also tend to migrate first. Migration introduces tension into family relationships. Long periods of separation strain marriages, and also strain parent-child relationships. Children often spend many years living with relatives while their parents work to bring them over. As a result, children can view their parents as strangers and may still be attached to the aunt/uncle/grandparent/etc. that they grew up with. In addition to this women can find jobs more easily than men. More pressure falls on them as they uphold the family financially, and women put pressure on the men to find jobs. All these different pressures and problems can put excessive strain on family relationships and can break families apart.

Rogers’ Black Like Who? discusses group identity of American blacks. Black New Yorkers specifically are becoming increasingly more diverse. While native African Americans have outnumbered immigrant Afro-Caribbeans, the number of Caribbean immigrants will soon surpass that of native blacks. Thus, the singular group of black Americans is actually one composed of many different cultures, beliefs, ideologies, etc., and it is constantly diversifying and changing.

Additionally, African Americans tend to identify as black more than Afro-Caribbeans do. These differ in part due to diverging responses to shared experiences. Both groups fear marginalization and seek inclusion, however native blacks tend to feel more attached to the race than Caribbean immigrants who can feel less rooted in the country and can have less of a sense of belonging to the race.

According to Water’s Growing Up West Indian and African American, the ways in which the second generation balances their racial and ethnic identities are influenced by race, class, and gender. The second generation’s ideas about race are passed down from their parents as well as the values and beliefs of other family members. It’s also influenced by their peers at school and the racial discrimination they may face. The understanding that a second generation child develops greatly affects how they react to American society.

While reading this weeks articles, I began to reflect on my parents’ experiences as immigrants and consider my own experiences with racial and ethnic identity. Both my mother and father work full-time, and my mother is also in charge of household responsibilities. I’ve realized that there are many dynamics I have never considered that are present when one migrates from one country to another. It’s challenges one physically and mentally, and it challenges relationships. I have a greater appreciation that my parents were able to successfully immigrate, take care of our family, and allow me to live this lifestyle that I often take for granted.

The readings for week 8 attempted to evaluate the processes of transnational migration according to separate veins of influence. Ho’s writings observed transnational migration as an engendered process. Rogers’ writings in “Black Like Who?” observed the transnational process in the West Indian diaspora according the way that West Indian and American blacks identify themselves. Waters observed the effects of transnational migration on the entire family as a means to highlight the changes in attitudes towards one’s West Indian heritage according to class and place in the family line. All of these writings added to the entire picture of the effects of transnational migration on the individual and their family.

“Caribbean Transnationalism as a Gendered Process” by Christine G. T. Ho observes the differences in the role that each sex plays in the process of migration. This article was initially intriguing because none of the other articles that we have read have observed the power of gender in the process of West Indian migration. Gender is a very important part of West Indian culture as the societal expectations for the male and female sexes are clearly defined and heartily observed. I most enjoyed Ho’s analysis of the matrifocality of the Caribbean household as being different from concept of a female-headed household. I felt that this idea correlated well with the familial structure that we observed while reading “Brown Girl Brownstones” by Paule Marshall. This is to say that the same matrifocal but male-headed household described in Ho’s writings was exemplified in Marshall’s writings.

Reuel Rogers’ article entitled “Black Like Who: Afro-Caribbean Immigrants, African Americans, and the Politics of Group Identity” helped to define the differences in the ways that African Americans and West Indians differ in terms of the ways that they associate with their countrymen. Generally, Rogers illustrates American blacks as being concerned with the success of their race because they perceive it as being strongly related to their own success. In contrast, Rogers asserts that West Indian blacks see their own success as separate from the success or failure of their entire group (i.e. other West Indians). The part of this issue that I find most interesting is the idea that West Indian migrants in America- especially those in the middle class- identify most with their West Indian roots yet, they do not see their successes or failures as having anything to do with their constituents. Still, the well being of the families of transnational migrants is deeply intertwined with the success of their family members abroad. Many of he ideas presented in Rogers’ writings compete with ideas that we have seen throughout the semester.

Lastly, “Growing Up West Indian and African America: Gender and Class differences in the Second Generation” by Mary C. Waters uses data that she collected through research to characterize first and second generation West Indian immigrants according to their class and their association with their West Indian culture. One of the main assertions that Waters made- which was also discussed in Rogers writings- is the idea that West Indian immigrants (especially those in the middle class) don’t see racism as an insurmountable issue. I struggled with this idea because Waters’ findings also show that middle class Caribbean migrants are least likely to identify as being black. How can one honestly assert that he can overcome racism when he works to avoid being associated with the most racially oppressed race? This is analogous to a person who’s never been on well fare saying that well fare is not so bad. With this in mind, I thin that the middle class West Indian –American assertion that racism can be overcome by hard work is misinformed and hypocritical in that West Indian Americans make every effort to not be associated with the black race in order to avoid racism. In other words, they are not overcoming racism but rather cheating/ avoiding it by staying outside of the span of racism’s scope.

What Rogers is Refuting-
Article refutes common belief that blacks are homogeneous, conforming to all the same political beliefs. This belief is misleading, especially since Afro- Caribbean are a rapidly increasing part of blacks in America and ignores differences within native blacks as well.
Other common thinking also leads to the reasoning that Afro-Caribbean immigrants must chose between being predominantly racial identified, which groups them with African Americans and conforming with their political views, or being predominantly ethnically identified, which isolates the them from African Americans.
Thesis: Black Diversity in the formation of different political beliefs
However, Rogers argues that Afro- Caribbean immigrants can hold multiple identities, simultaneously without contradiction, and that Caribbean people have a distinctly different view on politics than African Americans due to their separate backgrounds.
Conducted his research on 59 first generation, working class Afro-Caribbean immigrants.

Difference between Group Identity and Group Consciousness/ Linked Racial Outlook
Group Identity = self awareness of one’s membership to a group and psychological feeling of belonging to that group.

Group Consciousness= political/ ideological awareness of group’s position in society and collective interest in pursuing the group’s interest

Linked Racial Outlook= Individual’s fate is primarily based on the position/ social perception of their race
How African Americans identity/ interpret the American society
Radical group racial consciousness- more liberal, race plays large part in most of society’s interplay. Collective race ideas in community lead to further progression/ opportunities in America for black

Belief in linked racial fate- individual fates based on advancing the entire race

Believe in government aid to help lessen some socio/ economic racial inequalities in American society, currently and historically, yet cynical of government

Middle class blacks are more likely to subscribe to this group racial consciousness than lower class blacks.

How Caribbean people identify/ interpret American society
American citizens but ultimately ethnically distinguished by a region in the Caribbean

Both identified ethnically and racially- group identification with African Americans but do not necessarily have the same group racial consciousness.

Recognize racism as a barrier in American society, yet are not preoccupied with it as much as African Americans. Believe it can be overcome with hard work and time.

Admire African Americans progress in Civil Rights and resilience throughout American history

Do not put much stock in Linked Racial Fate, believe it does have some impact but fate is usually more individualistic or circumstantial

*Not usually as strongly political in America as African Americans.

Question?
Why and how do Caribbean people differ from African Americans in these regards?
List of reasons:
Commonalities in history/ collective memory, yet key differentiating factors like voluntary/ involuntary migration and segregation under Jim Crow, resulting in different perception of racism and black/ white relations
Transnational networks verse black institutions, differentiating cultural/ social/ political beliefs being instilled- highlighting difference between group identification and consciousness as result of varying socialization
Sense of Home- Caribbean feel accepted within homeland they identify with; while native blacks mostly identify with US but do not feel accepted due to race.

List of Reasons (continued)
Leads into Myth of the Return/ Sojourn Mentality- Caribbean have a form of escape into their homeland, when between two places they can choose a better option; while native blacks do not have an ‘exit option’ and must make do in America.
Alternative Frame of Reference- Caribbean immigrants compare life in America to the Caribbean, which they usually have elevated status just for immigrating; while native blacks compare themselves to whites and the inequalities between them.

Question?
Is Rogers right? Is there a certain affinity between Afro- Caribbean blacks and African American blacks? Or is the divide between ethnic identification and racial consciousness too wide to close?
Why are transnational ties more important to Afro- Caribbeans than other ethnic groups, like the Chinese or Latinos?
Growing Up West Indian and African American:

Gender and Class Differences in the Second Generation
Thesis/ How research was conducted
Explore Caribbean immigrants’ adaptation and accommodation in the United States
Explore how they develop their ethnic/ racial identities
Explore the different dynamics of ethnic/ racial identities between 1st and 2nd generations
Explore reactions between 1st and 2nd generation to American race relations.

This study was conducted on 72 first generation Caribbean immigrants- either teachers or fast food workers, 30 black co workers and 27 white employers in the fast food industry 83 adolescent second generation immigrants- 74 in lower class neighbor with varying educational/ institutional influence and 9 who moved into a middle class neighborhood

How First Generation Caribbean immigrants identity/ affect children
-They identify themselves according to their ethnicity/ national origins, in an attempt to differentiate themselves from black Americans with the assumption that white Americans treat foreigners better.
-Voice negative opinions about black Americans and support the embrace of ethnic heritage to their children
-Face difficulties in passing on ethnic mindsets to children because the children grew up with separate society/ place, therefore, have different perspectives, and do not distinguishing ethnic characteristics that they have.
-Believe that they can overcome racism through hard work, time, and right values/ attitudes
-Fear losing parental control over children or their children losing ethnic identity and identify as a black American because belief it results in social downwards mobility
How Second Generation Identify/ Characteristics (3 Types)
Ethnic American
distancing from Black Americans, emphasizing ethnic Pan Caribbean background
31%, mostly middle class
agree with parents differentiating between native blacks and Caribbean people, most likely view themselves in a superior light
better performance in school
strong national ties either with ethnic institutions or frequent trips to parent’s home
can achieve higher opportunity despite racism
more positive view of being an American

How Second Generation Identify/ Characteristics (continued)
2. Black American
identified with other black Americans, minimized ethnic backgrounds
42% , mostly poorer
Oppositional, disagree with parents trying to differentiate between groups
view race as predominant limiting factor in life, limiting their upwards mobility
opposition to school system, which is seen as ‘white’
less optimistic view of being an American

How Second Generation Identify/ Characteristics (continued)
3. Immigrant
did not chose to be categorized in the American sense
27%, mostly lower class
dress/ speech/behavior clearly indicate foreign birth
include people born in US but visit the islands frequently
strong ethnic identity based on experience in homeland, without distance from native blacks
good in school with advantage of ethnic ties in workplace

Gender Altering Meaning of American identity
Gender did not reflect in choice of identification, but rather the effect of having an American identity.
-Boys have more of a sense of racial solidarity than girls due to exclusion/ disapproval by society. Results in the increased likeliness to differentiate among themselves as ‘acting white’ or ‘acting black.’ Face more racial harassment and perceive little job opportunities available to them. This perception results in their pursue of the opposition of mainstream values.
– Girls do not face the same degree of hostility and exclusion from society. View themselves as having more job opportunities. To be an American, girls view as having freedom from parental control, which parents exercise over girls more than boys.
West Indians as Model Minority versus becoming American
Traditionally immigrating to America means assimilating into society and abandon ethnic ties.
This theory connects to the fact that decision to become American is based on economic success
However, West Indian immigrants are rewarded for maintaining their ethnic identity, resulting in upward mobility because they are perceived as harder working and can then develop trade networks. Being an American means integration into marginalized, race structure, which is perceived to result in downward mobility and worse characteristics.
There is a want to become American but maintaining ethnic ties and having a support networks are the most beneficial. This results in distancing themselves from black Americans and other non-white immigrant groups. The poorer/ more uneducated the immigrant, the more difficult to have long sustaining these ties

Color Line in America in response to Racism and Class (Structural Problems)
-Continual racial inequality in society reflected in its institutions, such as education, public safety, and the job market, will increase oppositional attitudes rather than increase striving among black Americans or second generation Afro- Caribbean immigrants.
-Cultural Racism theory= ‘whiteness’ becomes distinguisher for high classes and better values while ‘blackness’ implies lower class with lower values
-Reflected in how Afro- Caribbean immigrants chose to distance themselves from black Americans, and as Americans in general. Even if they rise in economic standing, there is this perceived inconsistency with ‘blackness’ and middle class values and wealth.
Color Line in America in response to Racism and Class (Structural Problems) (continued).
Ultimately, race hierarchy that cause blacks to be disadvantages and left as a lower class, in association with urban residency problems, result an overall American problem- not just an immigrant problem.

Waters suggests to resolve this issue by eliminating cultural and biological forms of racism (stereotypes/ based on skin), large and small, and instituting policies that help make up for some of the socio- economic racial disparities.

Question?
Compare and Contrast Roger’s and Waters’s Article- How do their views on racism in America effecting Afro- Caribbean immigrants differ or match?

Waters is more negative, and views race and ethnic identification to class and gender into a larger critique of American society and how race is viewed. She does not focus on trans nationalism and mostly works off the concepts of assimilation. Rogers mostly focuses on trans nationalism and difference within the black community, and not larger American society perceptions of blacks and how it results in class difference like Waters did.

Ho speaks about traditional Caribbean matri-focal lifestyles, and how it rose through history. She speaks about how Caribbean people usually focus on family raising children rather than just the parents like an American nuclear family. She also mentions women immigrants must work hard and support their child.

Transnationalism as a Gendered Process

In this article, the role of Caribbean women in transnationalism is discussed. Back in the Caribbean, as in many countries, men were the ones who went out to work, and they were the ones who typically put food on the table. Thus, they were thought of as superior to women who depended on them to survive. However, as the Caribbean was infiltrated by the global economy, a switch began to take place. This is because women were able to obtain employment, thus they grew less dependent on their husbands and rose in social order. Furthermore, Caribbean families are usually described as “matrifocal”. Meaning, that women were at the head of the family and made the significant decisions. Furthermore, the article touches upon the naturally stronger relationship a mother will have with her kids, as compared to one the father will have. Such a family formation in the Caribbean led to families in which strong burdens were placed on mothers, as opposed to father, as mothers can support their families both financially and parentally.

The article then discusses how men who immigrated to new countries, specifically the U.S., did not find good jobs. Of course women didn’t find good jobs either, but in the case of men, they can decide to immigrate once more, but as for women, they must remain with families due to the burden of children. However, when a man chose to leave, women would struggle more due to the lack of direct support economically and with the children. Thus, women would immigrate as well.

When women immigrated, they would leave their children with family members back home, maybe grandparents. In their country of emigration, women would establish transnational trust networks. These networks were built upon the belief that mothers would work in the new country to be able to send money back home for their children and family members. Sometimes however, things would not work out, as the fathers who also immigrated would abandon the family. This is a break of the trust network and would only destroy the family’s efforts. Ho also touches upon how that in working class families, women are the only ones that tend to immigrate. This signifies that women lay the foundation for transnational networks that seeks to bring over families.

These trust networks, paved by women, were very significant for the Caribbean immigrant. Trust networks provided economic support for families back at home, specifically for children left with family members waiting to be brought over. Over time, these trust networks sort of die out within families as those taking care of the children are brought over to the U.S., thanks to their care of the children. Thus, dues are sort of paid by both sides of the network.

Black Like Who?

In this article, Reuel Rogers discusses the relationship among native African Americans and Foreign Caribbean people within the black community in the United States. Specifically, Rogers goes into analysis of how these groups identify with race. Rogers states that as more Caribbean people enter the U.S., the homogenous body of black Americans is slowly disappearing and separate groups within the black community are forming. These groups consist of African Americans or West Indians. Both these groups separate them selves from one another. Although West Indians understand they have roots in Africa, they still uphold their West Indian nationalities and do homogenize to simply being black Americans. Still however, both groups face the same problem: racism. When coming to the U.S. West Indians find that they are grouped with African Americans and vice versa. This racial discrimination and generalization has actually united the two groups under the fight for civil rights.

Furthermore, Roger touches upon how first generation immigrants have a much easier time separating themselves from the black homogeny, naturally. However, for their children it is not so easy. This is because 2 nd generation immigrants are often Americanized and lack traits such as accents that clearly make their nationality recognizable. Thus, the children of West Indians are often mistaken as African American.

Although both groups are similar, both, and even the subgroups within them, choose to identify with their nation of origin. Even if West Indians are from Africa, they want to be considered as either Jamaican, Haitian, etc. This, however, is seen in many other groups. For example South Americans, although similar to central Americans, speak differently and want to be identified with their own nation. Thus, this problem isn’t unique to Afro-Caribbeaners or African Americans, but rather this is one of the more complex ones.

Growing Up West Indian and African American

In this reading, similar to the last one, a discussion ensues about the development of identity between second-generation immigrants. Unlike the first generation Caribbean immigrants, the second generation was raised in the same inequality and racism of America, as African- Americans grew up with. Thus, second generation immigrants can actually relate and identify with Native blacks, unlike their parents. Both groups too, lack another homeland. African-Americans are so far removed from their African heritage, that the U.S. is their only homeland. Meanwhile, many second-generation immigrants lack the knowledge their parents had of their homeland and thus they associate with being American, then with being a complete Caribbean foreigner. This, however, is a problem. First generation Caribbean immigrants came from a background of struggle where they could not succeed. They came hopeful to the U.S. to find employment and hopefully wealth. However, such dreams are not evident in their children. 2^nd generation Caribbean immigrants actually lack the same motivation their parents had, and thus decided not to succeed in school or society. Furthermore, they experienced a racism their parents didn’t, and thus continue to lose hope due to the color of their skin. Of course there are exceptions. 2^nd generations Caribbean immigrants who hold on their background and affiliate with their parents actually achieve more than those who don’t. These children hold on to the same American dream their parents had and continue to resonate it.

Adrian Horczak

Professor J. Lutton

People of New York

March 16, 2015

Weekly journal 8

Global capitalism and gender roles brought on by Caribbean transnationalism are described in Caribbean Transnationalism as a Gendered Process, written by Christine Ho. In the reading, Ho discloses West Indians’ family structures and how women have to struggle more than their male counterparts when they migrate to other countries. They are burdened with the responsibilities of taking care of children, running the household, and working for low wages. Therefore, they must rely on their male partners for economic support. This makes men seem like very important.

Reuel Rogers compares Caribbean immigrants’ thoughts on racism with African American thoughts on the topic in Black Like Who? Moreover, he looks at how the two groups of people relate with their ethnic and racial identity. Their strong ties with their race make them participate in politics with similar values. West Indians tend to associate with their ethnicity much more than they do with their race. However, Africans tend to categorize themselves with their race much more.

Growing Up West Indian and African American discusses the ways in which West Indians identify themselves and involves a study with different people in New York. In the article, Mary Waters explains how West Indians feel treated in the USA and how others perceive them. West Indians who immigrate to New York do not feel the presence of racism as much as African Americans because they feel their situation in this country is better than in the Caribbean. However, future generations of West Indians tend to feel a much closer affinity to African Americans because they notice that people treat them poorly. Waters explains at the end of the article that if blacks were shown more respect, they would not feel the presence of racism and people of all races will be equal.

I like the point Waters makes at the end because she recognizes that although racism officially has been stopped, there are prejuduces present. Blacks find it difficult at this point to stop this kind of racism because some whites are friendly to them while others are not. Now they do not know who is good and who is evil, so confronting all of them would not work properly. This makes me see how racism is really present and why it is difficult to completely end it.

Ho’s article presents something different than the other two because she describes the hardships transnational women face. I was always aware that there are certain gender roles that function in society and I was finally made aware of why these roles make women’s lives more difficult.

We briefly discussed before on the roles women played towards the migration. Ho’s Caribbean Transnationalism as a Gendered Process further explores this idea. Caribbean households tended to be matrifocal, which refers to the patterns of relationship that puts emphasis on women. This doesn’t mean that women lead the household, but that the Caribbean households value the mother-child bond deeply. Along with this matrifocality, Caribbean culture sanctions separated gender roles. Mothers may not always have someone to help her support and raise the family, which is why many enter the workforce. However, a majority of the immigrant women have low education, and were left with low-paying, low-skilled jobs. They were often seen as a reserve to the labor pool. As a result of unemployment and low wages, women couldn’t support their families by themselves. Many engaged in relationships with multiple men to gain financial support for their family.

Identity becomes a big issue after 1965, when Afro-Caribbean once again migrates to the states in large numbers. Although the segregation ended, white American views of black Americans did not change. The afro-Caribbean group and the native black group had strong identity views. When Caribbean migrants came to the states in large numbers, both groups started to have conflict with each other. They didn’t want to be viewed as similar to each other. This divide was further separated by how white-Americans viewed both groups in the working environment. Caribbean immigrants in the job force was favored over the native blacks because they were viewed as being better educated than their native counterparts. At the same time, these two groups were brought together by these views. Both the native black groups and afro-Caribbean groups had common ancestry in the Africa, and a common skin. People who have saw Caribbean migrants as the model minority made comments that showed their ignorance. They thought that they were automatically better than the blacks. The ignorance behind comments like these enraged many people. It is people like these that continue to maintain the color line.

The three articles related to Caribbean identity were very interesting reads. I found that most were accurate and the content can be connected to the experience of people from other cultures. It is amazing how much immigration can affect a person and his/her family’s life. I always wondered why my father suffered through a depression. I guess that coming here very little is a much more different experience than coming here as an adult. Since you do not remember ever being in your homeland, then you do not miss anything or anyone. Adults on the other hand miss their origins. It is even worse when these people do not have any transnational networks or ties to anyone because then they have to make something of themselves on their own. In “Caribbean Transnationalism As a Gendered Process,” Ho discusses the role that Caribbean women play in transnationalism and the suffering that they go through due to the system. Ho starts out by describing the effects of capitalism and a global economy on men and women. Men were usually the ones who worked, made a living, bought the food and supported their families economically. However, having this position made them superior to women because women often depended on their husbands to come to their aid. As capitalism and globalization came into place in the Caribbean islands, women began to work as well, making them less dependent on their husbands. Caribbean families tend to be matrifocal. There is also a stronger relationship between a mother and her children than the relationship between a father and his children. This familial structure led to less-involved fathers, placing a greater burden or role on the mother, who would provide for her children both economically and emotionally.

Caribbean men often did not have the best jobs in their countries or even when they arrived in the United States due to racism. Women would have to go to work as well to make ends meet. However, them getting a job did not take away the other responsibilities they had at home. Women were still expected to do household chores, take care of the kids, and serve their husband. The jobs that were offered to women were often menial and low paying. A lack of job for the husband was not good because many times, the husband would decide immigrate, leaving behind his family and his other responsibilities. Although the husband’s intentions were good, once the husband immigrated, the wife and children inevitably suffered. They no longer had that support right next to them to provide aid. Thus, many Caribbean women resorted to migration. They did not want to experience the suffering that came from the economic situation they were in.

According to Ho, women play an important role in immigration and the establishment of transnational networks and overseas familial ties. Women often immigrated to the U.S. to work, make money and send that money back to their families in the Caribbean. Remittances were an important part of the lives of these people and their families. Immigration had a huge effect on the family and sometimes it led to a family’s disintegration. In some situations, a mother immigrated to the U.S. to work, the father abandoned the family, and the children are left with family members in the Caribbean. This separation is very dangerous and heartbreaking. Parents do not have bad intentions when they immigrate to the United States. Rather they want their whole family to move up the social ladder. I personally view immigrating to a different country to make money and be successful as a sweet and bitter type of action. You can never have anything complete in life. What I mean to say is that, after immigrating to the U.S. you can have a better life than you did in your homeland and send back remittances, but you do not experience a family life since your family is back in your country. And the relationship between you and your family becomes strained. Also, like we mentioned last Thursday, sometimes your family members, who live in the homeland, begin to take advantage of you because they ignorantly come to believe that you have a lot of money just because you live in New York. However, they do not know the backbreaking labor you have to do just to get by.

Something interesting that Ho mentions in the beginning of his article is that the Caribbean elite tend to migrate to New York in families, but that for the working class only women migrate. These women pave way for their families. So in a way women can be considered the leaders of their families. Although it is always believed that men are the heads of the household, I think that women are the heads of the households because they are the ones who raise the kids, have side jobs and provide both emotional and financial support for their families. It is truly shocking to me when I see that men get more credit than women do for their role in the family. Women do all the back stage work so that the family can continue to remain “united.”

Lastly, Ho reminds us of trust networks and their importance to both Caribbean immigrants and their families back at home. Many times Caribbean people would immigrate to work for their nuclear family and their extended family’s economic benefit. However, in exchange for the money they would send back, some Caribbean people left behind their children to be cared for by others. The children were often times why the trust network continued. Both ends had dues for each other. However, once the second or third generations grew up, the networks were gone because neither people in the Caribbean nor the people here in New York felt that they owed anything to each other.

In “Black Like Who?” Rogers explores the issue of Afro-Caribbean group identification and underlying political implications. On a side note, the issues and themes that Rogers presents in his article can be related to any non-white race that has immigrated to this country. In the same way that West Indians did not want to be associated with black people, there are many Latinos that do not want to be meshed into the whole minority group. I have experienced this where I am often confused as Mexican because of the stereotype that most Hispanic immigrants come from Mexico. There is a complicated relationship between regional pride and national pride. I think that it depends on the situation. When you are amongst people of the same region, you want to stand out by portraying national pride. But when you are amongst people who do not know that much about your nation and have a vague idea of the area where you are from, your portray regional pride. Any ways, Rogers mentions that as the amount of Caribbean immigrants in New York increase, the notion of a homogeneous group of black people is disappearing. The presence of Afro-Caribbeans in the city has made the black race more complex. There are ethnic and class differences amongst people from different countries. Although Caribbean people acknowledge that they have roots in Africa, they do not consider themselves African nor do they have the same culture as Africans. The important question that Rogers had was whether, immigrants and second and third generations, identified themselves as West Indian, black, American or the country from where they were from.

It was discovered that some West Indians identify ethnically to avoid being even remotely associated with native blacks. They know how much native blacks suffer due to race in this country and so some believe that coming off as a foreigner would make success more attainable. However, an issue that unites both native and foreign blacks is that of racial discrimination. To an ignorant outsider, an Afro-Caribbean person and a person of African descent look the same, talk the same and have similar impressions. Thus, racism has mobilized native and foreign blacks to join forces and fight against it. Institutions such as volunteer organizations, churches, schools, etc. have served as mobilization grounds.

It is interesting to see how West Indians embrace both their ethnicity and their race. However, most of the population seems to use their homeland as their primary identity. Although most acknowledge that they are related to African Americans, they do not portray racial group awareness and consciousness to the rest. I guess that it is because (like is said in the article) slavery in the West Indies ended much earlier than it did in the United States. West Indians initially come to the United States with a I am going to work and then leave this wretched place kind of mindset. Thus to them, at least initially, race problems are the least of their concerns. The first generation to migrate particularly believes that hard work, demonstration of values and good etiquette will make people overcome racism. The later generations are the ones who begin to truly experience racism at school and other public places. Adult immigrants who work in menial jobs are already in one way or another accepting their position in society. However, the later generations that receive education and become part of American society are the ones who are always shocked by where they end up on the social mobility ladder. Many expect to be treated a certain way because of their pre-supposed intellect and when they get treated like trash, they become angry and is experiences like this one that make later generations associate themselves more and more with native blacks, who have experienced this for a much longer stretch of time.

An interesting idea brought up by Rogers is that African Americans tend to compare their situation with that of whites while Caribbean immigrants compare their situation with the situation that they were in back in their homeland. African Americans will never be satisfied by they will always believe that they are not being treated correctly; whereas, West Indians see a positive change, generally speaking of course. Also, West Indians have the exit option, meaning if the situation gets worse they can always go back home. This option is just a way for Caribbean immigrants to cope with their issues. I am pretty sure no one would go back.

I personally think that there is truly a shared identity amongst African Americans and Afro-Caribbeans. Before this class, I had ignorantly believed that they even shared the same cultures. This idea sounds so idiotic to me now. It is like saying that Ecuador has the same culture as Spain just because at one point Spaniards colonized Ecuador and resided in it. Although we may have a shard language, and certain cultural aspects like religion, dance and cuisine, there are many differences between both groups of people. The stigmatization of native blacks in this country is what makes it difficult for Caribbean immigrants to fully identify with the native black population.

In “Growing Up West Indian and African American,” Waters talks about the development of an identity, amongst West Indians, be it ethnic or racial and the effects of leaning towards one over the other. On a side note, I never knew the difference between race and ethnicity before this class. Through an intensive study, Waters discovered that most first generation West Indian immigrants identified themselves with their country of birth and some tried to maintain a huge distance from African Americans. However, the second generation had a more variety of responses. Waters believe this is because of race, class, gender, and the experience that these people have in the U.S. It was seen that people who identified themselves ethnically were mostly from a middle/working class while people who identified racially were of a lower class. What is implied is that those who identified themselves ethnically wanted a distinction between them and African Americans because they have no reason to be associated with them, whereas, those in the lower class are often victims of racism and maltreatment, causing them to form an alliance with African Americans as a way of fighting back the system.

I found it interesting and understandable that many believed being a black American to be the worst possible label. These people are often the victims of racial prejudices and stereotypes. In terms of gender, Waters described it as boys identified being black in terms of racial solidarity while girls discussed it as freedom from parental control. Also, the reason why West Indian immigrants had more access to jobs and opportunities when compared to the native blacks was because of the networks that many established. The establishment of networks was necessary for West Indian immigrants because they needed to be sure they would have opportunities waiting for them once they arrived to the U.S.

Waters’ article focuses more on individual identification. The inclusion of the study responses were very interesting and made the article more appealing to me. I admire Waters for being so direct, to the point and sure of what she was saying. The way she analyzes her interviews and comes up with many generalizations was very interesting and must have require a lot of work and effort on her part. She raises some very good ideas like the fact that decent jobs, good schools and low crime rates are universal ideas that would benefit everyone.

I look forward to discussing this more in depth in class.

“Caribbean Transnationalism as a Gendered Process”

This work, by Christine G. T. Ho, talked mainly about global capitalism and its relationship with the role women had in supporting their families financially, as well as their role in actually migrating. Since many Caribbean families were quite poor, they had to move using what is known as circular migration, in contrast to elite families who were all able to move together. This system provided the means for subsequent families to move in to the areas as well. Unfortunately though, this system causes families to be split up as not all members are able to move at once.

One thing that the article stressed in great detail was the idea of a matrifocal, but not matriarchal, household. I found this really interesting to think about, because usually when you think of the person who is breadwinner, makes the most money, and is responsible for organizing family activities etc., you would also think that person would hold the most power. This is not the case, however, according to the article. The men of the family were still considered more powerful. I would be interested in finding out why this is. This fact also puts a heavy burden on females in the Caribbean, because this means they are responsible for both family activities and income. Compared with the gender roles in the United States, I am amazed how women are able to keep up with such a huge burden. Usually, if a woman in the United States works, she won’t necessarily have to have the entire financial burden placed on herself.

“‘Black Like Who?’ Afro-Caribbean Immigrants, African Americans, and the Politics of Group Identity”

This article discusses the differences between Afro-Caribbean blacks and African Americans, who are often confused and misrepresented by others, as they are collectively placed in the same group and labeled “black.” This is not accurate, as each group, Caribbeans and African Americans, have vast differences culturally. Caribbeans are generally considered to place more emphasis on education. Because of this, they considered themselves to be of a higher social status and therefore felt very strange being thrown into the same group as the native African Americans.

Politically, African Americans are unified by a strong sense of ethnic togetherness. African Americans tend to identify ethnically with a more generic African ethnicity. This is a result of their collective experience with discrimination, and their disadvantages in terms of how they are treated on a social and economic level. Caribbeans, on the other hand, identify more strongly with the specific country where they came from or where their family originated. They are less inclined to identify as black as a result of being so transnationally motivated.

“Growing Up West Indian and African American”

This work discusses the differences in the ways that West Indians and African Americans describe themselves ethnically, and also how this decision impacts their lives. It describes also how second generation Caribbeans view their situation, and how they navigate it. One significant portion of the research that was done had to do with the effect of gender on how second generation Caribbeans perceived being an American. It was interesting to see that both genders expressed concerns about being American because they faced discrimination as a result, but boys felt American because they were able to come together and resist “societal exclusion and disapproval.” This is not unusual to hear, as it often seems to be the case in the news, especially as of more recently, that black boys seem to be pursued by police etc. more than other ethnic groups. Black girls, notably, don’t feel this same level of persecution from either the police or whites.

The first article that we had to read this week was Transnationalism as a Gendered Process by Christine Ho. In this paper, Ho discusses the role of women in the transmigration phenomenon. Caribbean women, though they are often portrayed as strong, independent and the heads of their households, they are often times still dominated by men. The women are merely forced into these positions by men. Caribbean men tend not to integrate into the family unit, leaving the women to take care of the children and the household. This creates a matrifocal but not matriarchal societal structure. That is to say that the women are central to the family and hold a lot of influence but they are not the dominant individuals in the family structure.

The connection that women have with other women is very important. Often times it is with other female kin or daughters. It is also explained how much these Caribbean women depend on men, despite their perceived independence. Most of the jobs in which they are employed are low-wage jobs where they serve men. In this sense, women’s movement into the workforce locks women in the lower class and into the servitude of men. They are also expected to depend on several men in their lives. They must depend on lovers, sons, and husbands for primary income and resources since women have been delegated to the role of supplementary wage earners within the family.

The second article we read this week was “Black like Who?” Afro-Caribbean Immigrants, African Americans, and the Politics of Group Identity by Reuel Rogers. Rogers looks at the differences and the relationship between native-born African Americans and foreign-born Caribbean’s within the black community of the United States. Something that I found very interesting is the idea that class comes before race. As the black population grows, parts of it move up into the middle class and other parts stay in the lower class. As blacks enter a more comfortable life in the middle class, they tend to associate less with their “blackness” and black political movements. This shows how important class is and how it can overpower the influence of race.

Both the native-born and foreign-born blacks held strong views on their race, culture and identity. Many of the Afro-Caribbean’s hold strong ties to their home country. Most identify as black in a similar way to the native-born African Americans. The difference is that the Afro-Caribbean’s accept their home country as their primary identity and hold that identity with pride. This is because of the transnational networks that are created during transnational migration, since they strengthen and solidify the connections to their home country. They also interact with other Caribbean islanders and African Americans so they develop a far more pluralist and diverse identity.

The last article we read this week was Growing Up West Indian and African American, Gender and Class Differences in the Second Generation by Mary C. Waters. In this article, Waters studies the way in which immigrants to the United States adapt to their new environment and follow the changes based on generation. The study included West Indian immigrants to New York City and their teenage children to learn more about this topic.

First generation immigrants from the Caribbean, as discussed in “Black like Who?” Afro-Caribbean Immigrants, African Americans, and the Politics of Group Identity by Reuel Rogers, identify more with their Caribbean country of origin. For their children it is not so simple. Often times they are more Americanized and have lost certain traits like an accent that make them recognizable as Afro-Caribbean’s so they are often misidentified as native-born African Americans. This is a huge difference in the experience and perception of the first and second generation. Again another large factor is class and growing up in such a diverse city like New York, I have witnessed this. Children growing up in poorer neighborhoods are more likely to reject their ethnic identity while children in middle class neighborhoods are more likely to embrace their ethnic identity.

It is interesting to me how the three paths of identity development were laid out. The three types include those who identify as American, ethnic American, or as an immigrant. It is strange to think that people with similar familiar background of transnational migration could arrive at such a wide spectrum of identities for themselves. I think that this shows that class is a huge factor in deciding one’s identity, more than ethic or racial factors. Class even has the power to influence the perception of the other two, ethnicity and race. This makes the study of political-economic factors exceedingly important in understanding identity of immigrants and their children.

This week’s readings Black Like Who?, Growing Up West Indian and African American, and Caribbean Transnationalism As a Gendered Process dove into the topic of gender and race playing a role in immigration. They looked into women leading households, nationality and identity in different generation immigrants, and the common ideas of African Americans vs. West Indians.

Ho’s article did a great job of showing how strong Caribbean women are and how they shape their families. Caribbean families are very matrifocal and the bond between a mother and her child is extremely valued. I found this to be so different from patriarchal European societies and the standard male-dominant societies we see today in many countries. Earlier in the semester, we discussed how women are usually the first to initiate the immigration process. This was brought up again and led into the idea of childcare and how it is a collective responsibility. Ho’s work also discussed women’s constant “participation in the public workplace” which isn’t common for many other societies. Caribbean women are expected to work difficult jobs, take care of the home and take care of the children. I believe Ho really captured the strength of the women and showed them in a positive light. My family, unlike many Russian households, is also more matrifocal, so I was able to connect to the women Ho wrote about. My mother was the one who made a higher salary, took care of the house, the children and so much more. She was also the one to initiate the immigration process and was at times the head of the household, much like Dominican women. I was also a part of a collective childcare, where both sets of my grandparents would take turns helping to raise my brother and me.

Rogers’ Black Like Who?, discussed the divisions of African Americans and West Indies immigrants. He brought up first-generation immigrants national identification compared to native-born. Rogers explores the experience of the immigrants with race. He states that race has been a more present issue and much more conscious with African Americans than Afro-Caribbeans. In general, Rogers’ agrees that there will always be a separation between African Americans and Afro-Caribbeans all around in politics and socially.

Growing Up West Indian and African American was a great study. It consisted of 212 interviews with 2^nd generation immigrants, native-born blacks, native-born whites, and adolescents who were the children of black immigrants from the Caribbean. The interviews suggested that first-generation immigrants identified themselves according to their national origins. I found this relatable because I moved to the US when I was four, and I still identify myself with the country I am from. I was also able to connect to the middle-class students in magnet schools who identified themselves as immigrants. In my opinion, it was difficult to see the different viewpoints students had of their future. They discussed the pessimistic views of their future opportunities. The author did a good job of showing how different background as well different nationality and identity changed the kids views on racism and opportunities. For example, American-identified teens in all-black schools thought that “the fight against segregation had been lost” while students in middle-class situations attending magnet schools saw more possibilities and a brighter future.

Women play a major role in Caribbean families. This is due to the fact that Caribbean families are structured as matrifocal. Matrifocal is “mother-centered,” where the mother has close ties to her children, whether or not there is a father. The Caribbean people value the mother-child bond above all. This type of bond is the longest lasting and eventually the child would become the “old-age insurance” for the mother. The bond between the mother and child is like an investment that will pay off in the long run. The mother takes care of the child and eventually the child takes care of the mother. Child care is also a collective responsibility rather than being targeted to the parents. This is interesting because the child doesn’t only have one mother. Sometimes he/she is moved around to different households. Caribbean children are basically raised by the community rather than just the parents.

Caribbean kinship revolves around “reserving legal marriage for status equals and non legal unions for partners of lower status.” This means that the upper and middle class men can marry women of the same status while at the same time have an affair with other women of a lower status. The men can also father the children of the lower status women. This concept allows a Caribbean man to have multiple families. This system results in the women supporting a family without male support. Caribbean women rely on other female kin such as friends and neighbors to compensate for the lack of support from the men.

Caribbean women are usually workers and mothers. “The capitalist relations of production historically denied adequate earning power to a large segment of men, making it unrealistic to expect them to be sole breadwinners.” This is the reason that Caribbean women are brought into the workforce. Women strive for economic independent and responsibility, however, many Caribbean women are often unskilled laborers so they do not make enough to support their own families. Eventually they will have to rely on men for help.

Almost all of Caribbean women work in domestic labor. This includes working in private homes or in hotels. This is the one of the limited type of work available for them because “88 percent of Caribbean women have no more than primary school education.” Other Caribbean women who do not want to work in domestic labor works in assembly plants. These plants offer low wages and inflexible hours because the pool of Caribbeans in need of jobs is vast. They aren’t even hired full time and in most cases only used for the fringe benefits. As more and more Caribbean women stay in the same field, they will always be always be dependent on men because they will be unable to achieve economic independence.

How did this dependency on men even start? Well, long ago the families were run by both men and women. The labor of a woman was just the same or greater than the labor of a man. Therefore, women were of high status. Eventually industrial capitalism changed everything by “shifting the locus of economic production away from the household into the public workplace.” The labor of men were valued more than the labor of women because they just stayed at home while the men went out to work. The work of a women was regarded as unproductive and the status of women started to decline. Actually, in the early stages of industrial capitalism, even children worked in the public labor force. If men, women, and children all worked then who would stay at home and reproduce? This was the concern so a deal was made that the men would be paid a “family wage,” to cover the cost of the women and children not working.

This industrial capitalism does not apply to Caribbean women because they are forced to work rather than stay at home. There are several factors that contributed to a unique experience of industrial capitalism on Caribbean women. The first factor is that Caribbean men were never paid a family wage. Instead, they work in low paying and risky jobs. The second factor is that most Caribbean women were influenced to work in the public labor force, which were usually low paying and low skill, and not avoid it.  Lastly, Caribbean women have always been working and taking care of family at the same time. Therefore, abandoning the work force doesn’t even make sense.

Caribbean women have a much different experience than other women around the world. They are forced to be dependent on men but at the same time strive for economic independence. They also have two jobs, one as a mother and one as a laborer. Industrial capitalism changed the role of women globally but Caribbean women are unaffected. Caribbean women maintain the symbol of independence and strength due to their life struggles.

This weeks articles focused on a separation of racial and ethnic identity. In “Black Like Who?” Rogers argues that all blacks in New York are too often classified into one group. However, in reality, Rogers says that there are several sub groups such as immigrant Afro-Caribbeans and native born African Americans. The race as a whole is dominated by African Americans, but the population of Afro-Caribbeans is quickly rising and will soon outnumber African Americans. Furthermore, there are different social and economic backgrounds that separate blacks. Some choose to identify with their ethnic backgrounds while others chose to identify with their racial backgrounds. However, Rogers elaborates that under certain circumstances blacks will chose to identify with one over  the other. For instance, from a political standpoint, many blacks identify racially as a whole rather than ethnically leading to “a high degree of political unity within the group.”

I have to agree with Rogers that blacks are too often and unfairly identified in a singular group. This only further fuels an animosities between native and immigrant blacks. Furthermore, I think its an important point to note that people don’t seem to be as frightened of Caribbean immigration as they are of Hispanic and Latino immigration. The numbers appear to be similar with the immigrant Caribbean population growing exponentially to the point when it will out number native blacks. The latino population is also growing at a similar rate where experts predict that they might one day outnumber native whites. There is a much more negative connotation with this immigration relationship and that seems very unfair to me. Also I think its interesting that middle class blacks are more likely to identify with the racial whole than are lower class blacks. I would’ve thought that it would’ve been the opposite. However, Rogers explains that this most likely because middle class blacks are more likely to encounter whites on a regular basis where they are the subject of racial discrimination and find it important to hold on to their racial identity.

In the other article, “Growing Up West Indian and African American” by Mary Waters, the author analyzes the way in which first and second generation immigrants are likely to identify themselves, either racially or ethnically. Children of immigrants often lack their parents’ accents and other distinguishable characteristics. Waters goes on to explain that at an early age these child learn from their parents that immigrant blacks are more often favored by white than are native blacks. However, since these same children lack the distinguishing characteristics of their parents, they develop a fear that they will be discriminated against in the future. A big part of this fear often stems from peers at school, Waters elaborates. Waters continues that as  result of these influences, lower class black children tend to develop an “oppositional identity” while middle class children tend to develop an “ethnic identity.”

I feel that all of these negative connotations associating a particular ethnic group or race are very wrong and must be stopped at the source. Its terrible to think that children grow in fear of discrimination at school just because they lack particular characteristics of a foreign race. Its so much worse to see this kind of behavior within children than it is within adults mostly because of how easily children can become influenced. Its easy for everyday adults to shrug off racial discrimination when they’ve already developed a strong, positive ethnic and racial identity. However, children are still developing their identities and can become ashamed of things that they have no control over such as their race. This a terrible trend that must be put to an end before we can fully develop as a multicultural society.

Growing Up West Indian and African American – Gender and Class Differences in the Second Generation by Mary C. Waters

In her article, Waters discusses how second-generation West Indians choose to identify themselves within the American society. Throughout her writing she continuously proves that racism and discrimination still define the lives of those considered “black.” These two factors are what mainly affect a second-generation Caribbean decision to identify as American, ethnically, or as an immigrant. The child or adolescent’s experiences in class, race and gender cause him or her to define him or herself along one of those lines.

One interesting note that Waters makes is this manner in which the second generation views life after the civil rights movement. Many viewed discrimination still having a great affect on society. Some identified the separation from de facto and de jure, noting how explicit racism is illegal, yet implicit racism still runs rampant. As a 15-year-old Trinidadian girl noted, the law would not prevent you from going to a certain neighborhood, yet you know problems will arise if you do go.

Another important note that Waters discusses is the effect of racism drawn along gender lines. She notes how girls, due to the sheltering by their parents, “experience less overt hostility and exclusion by mainstream society,” while adolescent males “experienced a greater number of attacks on their rights to be full-fledged members of society.”

The portrayal of West Indians as the model minorities shows how the color line both progresses and limits them. It may provide them with tiny advantages within the workplace, stemming from their “lack of expectation of interpersonal racism.” Bosses and employers tend to feel more “comfortable” around West Indians as opposed to native blacks. Nonetheless, it is this type of “structural racism” that causes both African Americans and West Indians to be truly limited by the color line. They can never “forget about race” if they want to achieve something.

Waters ends off on an interesting point. She discusses that if the color line is not erased or if it is redrawn incorrectly, it can be detrimental for both African Americans and West Indians. The African Americans cannot help but feel stagnant, as they watch immigrants achieve a higher social and economic status than they. Yet if the color is drawn strictly between black and nonblacks, the effects on West Indians will be split. Those considered white or nonwhite would prosper much more than those considered black.

“Black Like Who?” – Afro-Caribbean Immigrants, African Americans, and the Politics of Group Identity by Reuel Rogers

In the article, Rogers discusses the manners in which Afro-Caribbean immigrants identify either ethnically or racially with their African American counterparts. With Afro-Caribbean immigrants making up a large percentage of the black population within New York, it is important to note how they designate themselves socially and politically. While he displays that the immigrants may align themselves ethnically or racially due to various factors (i.e. wanting to distance themselves from African Americans or identifying racially due to segmented racism and discrimination), he makes note that choosing one does not necessarily “negate” the other. For a Caribbean immigrant, in certain cases he or she may identify themselves ethnically, and in other cases they may do so racially. Rogers importantly notes that African Americans and Caribbean immigrants may identify differently because their “frames of reference” are different. Also, the experiences of socialization of African Americans have little connection with the Afro-Caribbean peoples.

Rogers dives into the importance of politics, and how it stems from African Americans’ self-identification. He shows how American blacks tend to be more informally, politically active than whites, who were more inclined to participate in systematic voting, campaigns, and political movements. He states that political alliance is “heightened” by the African Americans’ group consciousness.

His interviews show that there are differences in how Afro-Caribbean immigrants identify with African Americans.  As noted before, they embrace both racial and ethnic lines as desired. Although many initially identify ethnically, to identify a form of origin, not many refused to identify racially with African Americans. The interesting point of connecting with a home country came up here. They did identify racially with African Americans, some interviewees noted their heritage with Africa, yet they all identified with their home country first. My favorite response depicting this was “… I am naturally Jamaican but naturalized American.” Here, the immigrants have a trio of lines to identify along (African, Caribbean, American).

Unlike the African Americans, the Caribbean immigrants lack the political and social meanings that accompany racial identity. Rogers argues that this stems from their lack of group consciousness. Tying into racism, Afro-Caribbean peoples tend to not focus on racism as much as African Americans, recognizing that they (African Americans) have linked their “grievance to their highly cultivated feeling of racial group consciousness.”

Transnationalism also sets the Afro-Caribbean peoples apart from African Americans. While Afro-Caribbean immigrants do experience racial frustration, transnationalist ties provide a way to alleviate them. Rogers deems it an “exit option.” Many immigrants believe that if tensions within America become too great, they can always return to their home country, thanks to improvements in technology and communication.

The readings for this week covered new factors influencing Caribbean transnationalism. In “Caribbean Transnationalism as a Gendered Process” by Christine G. T. Ho, she explains the many transforming roles that Caribbean women have to take for their personal success, as well as the success of their children and their transnational networks. In Chapter 7 of Mary C. Waters’ Growing Up West Indian and African American and Chapter 8 of Reuel Rogers’ Black Like Who?, results of their studies are shown and analyzed and come to the consensus that the American culture towards black skinned people have to change to improve the chances of upward mobility for second generation Caribbean children. For the poor and working-class black Americans, racism and discrimination make up their childhood and cannot afford to get out of that life.

Many Caribbean women are the definition of single mothers. In coming to New York City, they strive to get a job to help their family. While they work, they also have to keep order in the household. They do this to move up social class. However, as the job opportunities for Caribbean women rise in America, the opportunities for men decline. Despite that, women still need the extra income to support their children. In an attempt to not fall behind, they spread their family network across many borders, as well as keeping strong ties to their home nations. Discrimination against their race has prevented full integration into society therefore requiring them to have a back up plan in case of the racial tension getting too hostile.

Future generations of Caribbean Americans are greatly affected by the level of success that the first generation has. In the best-case scenario, the parents have been successful both socially and economically, which gives the children a chance for good education and to visit the parents’ home nation. This gives the child an opportunity to interact more with his ethnic background and learn to appreciate it. He will have his own transnational network built from the ones his parents introduced him to. This was the case of the interviewees that identified themselves as West Indian in the interviews conducted by Waters and Rogers. In the opposite end of the spectrum were the poor families. The children in poor families only have their parents as a connection to their ethnic background. They are more exposed to racial slurs because they look like native blacks. As they grow older, they identify themselves as a black American rather than their ethnic background. They were born in America, just like other black Americans and don’t have access to ethnic trust networks. There is nothing to differentiate themselves from other black Americans, not even a foreign accent.

From these readings, it seems that the worst possible thing is to be recognized as a native black American. This is unfortunate for them and for the new immigrants that are put together with them by the white majority. The worst part is that instead of improving the race relations by spreading knowledge to end prejudice, the immigrants separate themselves from the native blacks. There is no clear manner to end instinctive discrimination, but hopefully there will be efforts made to break this terrible cycle.

Reading Christine Ho’s article on transnationalism as a gendered process was both surprising and not very surprising at the same time. I feel like we have touched on the importance of women in migration and transnational networks many times before in this course. Women tend to have an easier time finding work, often as a maid or caretaker, immediately after migrating and can secure financial stability much quicker than men. Women also used their “natural role” as a caretaker to take the burden of children off of other migrating families until they are able to get on their feet. What was surprising about the article was how matrifocal many Caribbean cultures are. Strong ties between mothers, other women and kin play a large role in creating the large kin networks we have previously talked about.

In the article “Black Like Who?” we finally go deeper into the relationship between native African Americans and Caribbean immigrants. So far in the course, we’ve only briefly touched upon these relationships and problems between native blacks and foreign blacks. Most of what we talked about was how they each group of people perceive the other. Many Caribbean immigrants felt they were better than native blacks since they often migrated with a substantial education and artisanal skills, while native blacks held their own prejudices against as well. What this article did was show how each group views each other in respect to how the country views them. Through interviews with over 50 different Caribbean immigrants, Reuel Rogers helps paint a better, more defined picture of the relationship between Native and Foreign blacks. Something in particular that stood out to me was how each group felt about their chances in succeeding in life or elevating their social standings. Native African Americans interviewed felt that it is incredibly hard to increase one’s social standing in America specifically due to the color of their skin. Caribbean immigrants interviewed felt different about the subject. Though some did say race plays a role, most felt that as long as one was hard working, they could improve their conditions. I don’t think anyone would not understand why these groups do not agree on this issue. The idea of a class system based entirely on racism is fairly new to many Caribbean immigrants; they did come face to face with racism in their home country, but class systems weren’t necessarily entrenched in the idea. Also, with many Caribbean immigrants holding strong transnational ties to their home country, there isn’t such a deep concern with issues in their new country. As Rogers explained, for many immigrants from the Caribbean, there exists an “escape route.” Many immigrants feel that if times get too tough, they could always migrate back to their original home. With such strong transnational networks in place, returning home and getting back into society would not be that hard at all.

The following chapter, by Mary C. Waters, ties in nicely with the aforementioned ideas. Many first generation immigrants cannot fully sympathize with native blacks. Yet, the emerging second generation, which mostly aligns itself with African Americans, definitely can. This second generation has grown up with the inequality and the ingrained racism of America. They do not have an escape route to a distant country since America is the only place many of them consider home. Most of the second generation is also too far removed from their ethnic identities to connect with a Caribbean culture. Many even want to rebel and often adopt the styles and attitudes of their native peers. Now, this isn’t a bad thing by any means. The only problem is that many of this second generation lose the hope in life that originally drove their parents to immigrate. Many actually start to feel that there is no use in trying to succeed, whether in school or in society in general, since their skin color will always relegate them to an inferior social distinction. On the other hand, members of the second generation who do on to any ethnic ties they have often stay optimistic about the future. They empathize with their parents and also want to achieved the heralded American Dream. As the article stated, to tell if hanging on to ethnic ties really does end up making one’s life better further research and studying will need to be done, but so far, those that do seem to have taken larger strides in bettering themselves.

First off just a few reflections about the walking tour of the Caribbean community in Flatbush Brooklyn. A large distinction of the community was the amount of money transfer processes available. In particular, the one that I am most familiar with is the Western Union, which we noticed in almost every block. In my community here in the Bronx there is also a large community of West Indies (of course not as large as Flatbush). When I used to work at a community retail store that provided Western Union, I encountered many West Indian immigrants. Most of our Western Unions customers were mainly West Indian immigrants. For example, there was a Jamaican customer that walked in every Sunday (as he received his weekly check) and send about $200. Of course at the time I did not understand why he does this, however now I am aware of remittances and their importance to the West Indians. It was really interesting to find that connection in our tour. As I reflect back to my Western Union customers the pieces fall together perfectly.

Another interesting observation from the walking tour was the fact that the community was in New York City a city that I lived most of my life in but yet at Flatbush it seemed anything but. I felt as if I left New York City and traveled for a quick vacation. The fact that I was coming from the Bronx (2 hour transportation) further emphasized this experience. The people also played in important role in manifesting this experience. New Yorkers are known to be rude and obnoxious folks that wont smile in your face. However, the total opposite was noticed at Flatbush. The Caribbean folks were very welcoming and friendly. They seemed to admire our interest in learning about the Caribbean immigrants.

As mentioned before many times, women played a key role in the Caribbean society in both New York and the Caribbean islands. Going back to the migration of Caribbean individuals around the time of the construction of the Panama Canal, women played a vital role in influencing migration of families, and taking care of them in group homes in “developing regions” such as Harlem. During this time, women predominantly worked domestic jobs along with mediocre factory jobs in order to earn money, which they could send back home to pay for the migration of the rest of her family. When we learned this, we overlooked the greater idea of transnationalism. However, these early days of the diaspora was the foundation for these strong transnationalistic ties that still exist today, along with the idea of trust networks.

In the article, ” Transnationalism as a Gendered Process” by Ho, the importance of women was again emphasized, but in a different scheme. Women most of the times led the household, either domestically or financially. As Ho mentioned, due to the lack of jobs along with other economical hardships, the role of men was lacking because they could not provide for their families sufficiently. Women, however, worked mediocre jobs and simultaneously took care of all the domestic jobs, which really proves their significance during this time. In addition, transnationalistic ties involving women was really crucial during this time, especially around the central idea of child bearing. As we learned much earlier, women were a huge factor in promoting migration, and they continued to be. As more individuals migrated to America, some felt as if though their children will not truly learn in the cultural setting they desired. Thus, this led to another revolutionary transnationalistic practice of sending children back home to keep their cultural roots intact. This was another way of keeping in touch with their home country, other than through the trust networks involving the movement of money and items. In addition, this practice of sending children back home especially during their youthful years in still continued today. On a personal note, when I was younger and had recently migrated to America, my mother would mention sending me back to Afghanistan because I was forgetting the culture gradually, and making mistakes in syntax and semantics when speaking Farsi.

In addition the complex idea of identity was also mentioned in the two other articles by Rogers and Waters. As we had learned before, individuals that were actually foreigners were ironically treated better. During this time, having an accent was actually embraced, because you were treated better. But, what being foreign set you apart from was being identified as black. Taking note of this historical time period, racism and discrimination was extremely prominent, and it played a pivotal role in people identifying themselves in a certain group. Many individuals actually who were middle class identified themselves using their country of origin (ethnically), to avoid being grouped in with the other degenerate African Americans. In contrast, individuals that were treated very poorly actually identified themselves racially as African American because they shared the struggle with other blacks facing racism and discrimination, and sought to improve their status by fighting together with the other African Americans. Another interesting aspect was that as the generations of immigrants progressed, the individuals actually started to identify themselves differently. The first generation migrants, as expected, identified themselves according to their home country, especially taking note of their nationalistic pride, and strong transnationalistic ties. But, as generations progressed, individuals started to identify themselves according to their economical, financial, social, and gender status. This really goes to prove the extreme struggles these individuals had when trying to identify themselves, especially with the stressing factors of racism, discrimination, and social class.

In Christine G. T. Ho’s article, “Caribbean Transnationalism As a Gendered Process”, Ho explains the economical and financial stability that women had to create for themselves as they resided in the cities of New York. Commonly, elite immigrant families tended to move to another country as a whole unit. All the nuclear family members had the resources and money to move in such a large entity. However, many poor Caribbean families immigrated independently from each other. It would take them many trips over many years to successfully bring the whole family into the same city. With this thought in mind, many of the Caribbean women migrants participated in what is known as “circular migration”, a method in which they would pave the path for other people to follow behind them, such as family members or friends.

Ho clarifies that many Caribbean families tended to be matrifocal and placed great emphasis and respect to the mother-child bond. Contrary to the notion that women in matrifocal families would be dominant, husbands were still considered to have the dominant hand in the family.

There are many causes as to why Caribbean women played such essential roles in maintaining the family and serving as the connecting bridges between the native country and the immigrant nation. Caribbean transnationalism rests on the foundations of family and kinship ties, which women managed to preserve. Many Caribbean men tended to maintain illegal relationships with other women. This forced the Caribbean wives to work hard without receiving a lot of financial and emotional support from the husbands. Many of these women worked as farm vendors and other jobs in the informal sector of the economy. After post WWII, the shift in the jobs forced women from agricultural work into domestic labor. At that time period, 88% of Caribbean women had only a primary school education and this made them the perfect candidates to be marginalized as the reserve labor pool, mainly due to high unemployment and their lack of an education. With women barely making enough money to support their families, they had to rely on relationships with numerous men to support their family.

All of these scenarios helped pave the path for women to form many networks and to keep their connections with their native country. Women kept in touch with their families back home so that they could receive help when times were tough. These same women had many networks within the community so that they could make money to help support their families.

In Reuel Rogers’ article, “’Black Like Who?’ Afro-Caribbean Immigrants, African Americans, and the Politics of Group Identity”, Rogers clarifies the major differences that diversifies the Caribbean community from the African-American community. There are many reasons why these two major groups are separated. With the increase in the Caribbean population and the decline of the native African-American population, the many conflicts between the two groups continued to clash at an exponential level.

Native African-Americans and the Caribbean immigrants both have a strong sense of nationality and racial identity. These two groups have always viewed themselves as unique with their own culture and heritage, individual from other groups. With the arrival of the Caribbean immigrants into New York City, social structures grouped the native African-Americans and the Caribbean immigrants into one black social group. This brought up intragroup tensions because these groups were offended that they were viewed as basically similar to each other.

The Caribbean immigrants also tended to have a higher education than their native African-American counterparts and this also fueled the rising conflicts. The Caribbean immigrants viewed themselves as upper class people and wanted to be treated better than the native blacks. They also believed that their migration was voluntarily made to New York City whereas the native blacks were forced to migrate to the states. These differences made each group view themselves as different from the other group, thus creating stresses between each other.

Many political groups started to form as ways to identify and aid the people specifically part of the same group. The Caribbean political organizations would exclusively aid the Caribbean immigrants by providing them ways to attain jobs, buy houses, and receive an education. In the same manner, native African-Americans formed their own political organizations where they had the capability to attain social mobility in their own communities and to identify with their racial identity and heritage. This influenced how both groups viewed politics because it was in the terms of achieving political representation for the whole racial group. This strong group identification influenced their political views on laws and issues that would benefit all their members. It is interesting to note that the more current immigrants from the Caribbean tend not to join these political organizations. Native African-Americans were more likely to relate strongly to their racial identity and roots, unlike the newest wave of Caribbean immigrants.

In Mary C. Waters’ article, “Growing Up West Indian and African American”, Waters explains her study on the development of racial identity of second-generation Caribbean teenagers and African-American teenagers. According to Waters research, first-generation immigrants from the Caribbean tended to identify themselves as from the West Indies. The second-generation teenagers, however, grew up hearing about the negative things about white culture and the African Americans. These second-generation Caribbean teenagers were also treated differently than their parents. They didn’t have their parents’ unique West Indian accent that distinguished them from their African-American counterparts. This hindered them from attaining higher wage jobs since the majority of the society couldn’t distinguish if these Caribbean teenagers were of West Indian or African-American descent.

Waters’ explains that parents who were involved with ethnic groups and organizations were more likely to instill a sense of racial identity in their children. Differing views between the parents and the children also influenced how they grew up to view their society and ethnicity. The immigrant parents were more likely to view their low social class standing due to a lack of education. They convinced their children that with hard work, they could make it up the social mobility ladder. However, these teenagers faced racism and discrimination from the society, thus altering their views of America, which vastly varied from their parents. Notably, the ethnic-identified teenagers who had middle-class parents and were placed in magnet schools had more hopes for the future. They believed that they would receive equal opportunities with the acquiring of an education.

“Caribbean Transnationalism As a Gendered Process” – Ho

In this article, the author discusses the role that women play in transnational ties as well as the disadvantages and problems they face in such a system. The author begins by claiming that the effects of globalization and capitalism affect both men and women differently. These effects (on both genders) have been negative and include rising unemployment, decreasing wages, and the “casualization” of labor. However, in this essay, the author looks into its effects on women. Families in the Caribbean have a matrifocal structure. That is, the family structure focuses on the relationship between mother and child, and the responsibility for raising children lies on female kin. However, this also leads to a less involved family structure for men, as these men have outside relations with other women. This, according to the author, leads to a greater burden on the mother, both financially and emotionally, thus leading to greater dependence on men for financial support.

Economic conditions deny Caribbean men a higher wage as well. However, since most women do not have the proper schooling, they are forced to work in mainly informal and low-paying jobs. Although an explanation exists (that cites industrialization) on women’s financial dependence, this explanation seems rooted in European experience. The Caribbean experience has been different because (1) men have been paid very low wages themselves, (2) women have not been excluded from the public workspace, and (3) women have always been burdened with a double workload and have never been exempt from household responsibilities.

Women have also been limited in terms of the types of jobs they can access, as they have been limited to low-paying, wage work. However, men have had similar experiences in Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic. Despite this, recent years have seen an increase in the number of jobs available for women because, according to the author, they are cheaper and more docile. Yet, the lack of jobs for men undermines their role in the household and forces some to leave home, making this increase in jobs for women a double-edged sword. Thus, some Caribbean women have resorted to migration.

In migration, women play an important role in maintaining transnational and kinship ties. These ties involve the sharing of responsibilities and the pooling of resources among members. This is especially true of child rearing because parents may send children to the Caribbean for a better education, and family members watch these children (until they reach higher education when they return). However, migration may cast a toll on relationships including marriage breakdown (because men have a difficult time finding work, thus undermining their role in the family) and strained parent-child relationships (because of long-term separation or conflicts between parent-child values).

I was intrigued by one sentence that the author wrote. It said:

“Put differently, (material) changes in the mode of production may alter the family as an economic unit but do little to change it as an ideological (nonmaterial) one” (38).

Now, to change the economic status of women, there must be a change in terms of material possessions (e.g. higher wages). This would allow Caribbean women to better their economic position as they would have to work less and some of the double workload would be lifted off their shoulders. I agree with this part of the statement.

However, I must partially disagree with the last part of the statement, which states that a material change would do little to alter ideology. To me, material changes have the ability to set in motion a set of ideological changes as well. Given the state of the economy today, I do not find it difficult for higher wages to undermine the system of patriarchy that the author mentions. Although it would be somewhat difficult, it can be done. However, given that such an event (e.g. an increase in wages) is rather unlikely in this day and age, I will admit that a more psychosocial-oriented change is necessary.

On page 40, the author provides a proposed explanation for the decreased status of women. However, she mentions in the next paragraph that this explanation is “obviously based on the European and Euro-American experience” (41). As was seen in the other two readings, it seems that many long-standing explanations were based on European experience. Was this the effect of Anglo hegemony in such studies? Despite this, it is nice to see that more and more people are now beginning to question these long-standing notions.

In addition, we are reminded of the importance of trust networks to Caribbean migrants. This is especially relevant when the author mentions that Caribbean migrants tend to put children in the care of relatives back home. It was also interesting to see how the author called children “human currency” (48). I never thought of children with such an analogy; however, it is very appropriate. Children act as the gateway to stronger transnational ties between family members. Parents place enormous amounts of trust in these family members, who are expected to take care of the child and provide him/her a proper education and discipline. Thus, it is only appropriate that children be considered a form of currency that assists in strengthening these transnational ties.

“Black Like Who?” – Rogers

This chapter discusses the differences in group identity and consciousness between African Americans and Afro-Caribbeans. As the number of foreign-born Caribbean blacks in New York City increases, the notion of a homogenous group of “black people” becomes increasingly irrelevant. Considering a simple grouping of one black people ignores ethnic and class differences as well as the diversity among this group. Many researchers have recently begun asking whether or not blacks share a racial group identity. Another, more important question asks about the identity that foreign-born blacks take. Do they take identify ethnically (as from their home countries) or racially (as African-American)?

Some have suggested that foreign-born blacks tend to identify ethnically in order to distance themselves from native blacks and avoid stigmatization. Others have suggested that racial inequalities force Afro-Caribbeans to identify racially and unite with African-Americans in the fight against these inequalities. However, the author argues that the choice is not dichotomous. That is, many foreign-born blacks primarily identify ethnically; however, they may also identify as blacks (with varying levels of intensity). The author argues that differences in racial identity between foreign-born and native blacks are due to differences in their “cognitive frames of reference” and their socialization in specific institutions.

To African-Americans, a shared racial identity serves as a point for group mobilization against racial discrimination. However, even more than this, African Americans believe in a linked racial fate outlook. They believe that their own individual fates are linked to that of African Americans as a whole. In addition, there exists a strong group consciousness, which results from dissatisfaction with the group’s social, economic, and political resources. African American political behavior seems to be driven by this consciousness and creates, according to the author, a “distinctive ideological lens.” In addition, institutional networks have acted as a sort-of group mobilization ground. However, this heightened group consciousness seems to be more prominent in middle-class blacks because they are more likely to encounter whites in everyday life and are more likely to participate in these institutions.

Afro-Caribbeans tend to embrace both their ethnic and racial identity; however, their ethnic, home country identity is usually their primary identity. Yet, despite shared racial group identification, they do not express a high level of racial group consciousness and express some ambivalence about any ideological meanings to their racial identity. This is because these people are not as preoccupied with racism as are African Americans. In addition, they are not connected to institutional networks as much as African Americans. Those who are connected express a higher level of group consciousness. Furthermore, transnational attachments tend to continue these patterns.

The concept of an alternate frame of reference stems from the fact that African Americans tend to compare themselves with whites; whereas, Afro-Caribbeans tend to compare themselves with their previous situations back home. In addition, Afro-Caribbeans speak of an exit option. That is, if racial conditions become particularly rough, they have the (often times, imaginary) option to return to their home countries.

The author wrote that African American group consciousness leads to a political worldview “at odds with the American ethos.” However, it is also mentioned that African Americans tend to lean toward a liberal or radical conception of this ethos, which they consider to be aligned with the nation’s ideals. To me, it is all a matter of perspective. To a white person, it may appear to be radicalism. Government intervention to address certain grievances does sound somewhat radical given the issue being considered.

However, to an African American, this may be seen as aligning to the American ideal: “That all men are created equal.” Thus, from their point of view, intervention makes sense because it was one of the ideals of the Founding Fathers.

As a result, the question of whether or not African American group consciousness leads to a political worldview “at odds with the American ethos” is a purely subjective one.

I also believe that a shared racial identity (among Afro-Caribbeans and African Americans) makes sense. One of the respondents in the study stated of African-Americans and Afro-Caribbeans that “our histories are similar.” Both African Americans and Afro-Caribbeans have similar roots. Both groups were brought over from Africa to the Western Hemisphere a couple of hundred years ago in order to provide labor. What is the difference? One group was sent to what is today the United States. Another group was sent to the Caribbean. Thus, it is understandable that Afro Caribbeans may have a sense of shared racial identity. However, what is stopping them from fully identifying with African Americans is the stigma and racism associated with being “black.” Thus, the notion of full-blown, shared racial identity cannot become a reality until racism and discrimination are (to put it lightly) eradicated (something that might not happen for a long time).

“Growing Up West Indian and African American” – Waters

Here, the author discusses the development of an identity (ethnic or racial) among West Indians as well as the implications of choosing a certain identity. The author found that first-generation Caribbean immigrants identified according to nation of origin and distanced themselves from African Americans. However, this was mixed in the second generation as race, class, and gender all play a role in determining identity. People who identified ethnically were more likely to come from a middle-class background, and those who identified racially (and had an “oppositional identity”) were more likely to come from a lower-class background. Middle-class children may have had access to better schools as well as participation in voluntary associations; they may also be shielded in a way from black culture by their parents. In addition, African-American identified teens had more negative things to say about being American (no equality) than ethnic-identified teens (with hard work, success is possible). In terms of gender, boys were more direct and discussed being black in terms of racial solidarity; whereas, girls were less direct and discussed it in terms of freedom from parental control.

The author recommends looking at West Indian identity and understanding it in context. This is because identity is usually chosen in relation to others based on kin ties. In addition, identification with American blacks carries with it the stigmatization and racism associated with being African American.

There is also the notion of West Indians being a “model minority.” It seems that the less American an immigrant is, the more likely they are to have access to jobs and information from social networks. The author attributes this to hiring preferences and social networks as well as cultural expectations (such as a relatively more “comfortable” attitude towards racism). The author ends by remarking that the plight of West Indians and African Americans is a sad one and questions the future of race relations in America.

This article differs from the last one by Rogers in that this talks about the implications of individual identification. The Rogers article discussed group consciousness and identity. However, I liked how the articles tied into and related to each other.

I liked the detail that the author gave in describing her study. She went into close detail about who her study subjects were, where they came from, and where they worked/went to school as well as hints at their social class backgrounds. I believe that it really helped the reader (me) to understand the structure of her study and helped to clear up any misconceptions about her study.

Now, the author mentions:

“If anyone has an incentive to maintain either loyalty to another country or a transnational identity, West Indians in the United States do” (203).

I would have liked it if the author elaborated a bit more on this statement. Is it because they have the option to distance themselves from African Americans? Is it because these transnational ties confer some type of other benefit? A little more elaboration would have been useful here to clear up these questions.

Later, the author writes:

“If the West Indian experience teaches us anything about American race relations, it should refocus our attention on the destructive, everyday prejudice and discrimination for which whites are still responsible” (207).

and

“Decent jobs, effective schools, and safe streets are not immigrant-oriented or race-based policies. They are universal policies that would benefit all urban residents” (209).

I do not have much to say on these lines, other than the fact that I was impressed by the forcefulness of the author’s words. She calls the prejudice and discrimination present “destructive” and actively blames it on “whites.” She later says that the right to a decent job, good schools, and low crime are universal (a point with which I fully agree).

We have already discussed the various push and pull factors that tie the Caribbean and the United States together when discussing emigration and immigration. Economic incentives are among the most powerful incentives around; namely due to the prestige that inhabiting a higher economic strata can bring not only the individual, but the family and, by proxy, the community. Advances with regards to transportation, communication and remittence-sending (is there a business for this?) have allowed for immigrants across the Caribbean to maintain close connections with their family back home. Transnationalism has forever changed the dynamic of immigration, people are forming networks across continents that further strengthens the sense of community between all ex-patriots. As a little aside I had no idea people from the Caribbean settled in Canada, the temperature difference seems like it’d be a bit insane.

Sad to say, immigrants from the West Indies haven’t had an easy ride coming to America. People of a dark complexion tend to get lumped together into one group even though there might not be anything linking two people together besides an abundance of melanin. To elucidate my point, as soon as white people heard that black people would soon be moving into the area they cut and ran because of the notion that as soon as the darker people moved in the value of their property would drop. This is called white flight and the exodus of white people into the suburbs paved the way for more and more people of West Indies ancestry to fill the now vacated houses. Unfortunately for our migrant friends, big banks don’t like to let money flow into these recently immigrant filled areas; this exclusionary practice is known as redlining. People from the West Indies were generally treated the same way American blacks were/are treated; poorly.

Moving on to the concept of “trust networks”, my personal opinion is that it may be beneficial in the short term but the reliance of the family upon the migrant will eventually prove detrimental. Having to balance carving out a niche for yourself while simultaneously supporting a family can’t be easy. Remittences are a risky business, especially when one can’t keep an eye on what the family might be doing with this money. I’m aware of how terrible this sounds but I’m not about to send my hard earned fancy American money back home without some sort of guarantee that it’s going to some worthy purpose. This might be because I’m a pragmatist but my general point remains, there is no way to tell what the people back home are doing with the money unless you go back there yourself.

This concept of having and maintaining a trust network was new for me. I have family that still lives in Italy but no one here sends anything back, the people there seem to be doing alright. They used to send back massive hunks of cheese seemingly for no reason, not like a need a reason to receive fancy cheese or anything.

Nancy Foner’s essay entitled “West Indian Migration to New York: An Overview” provided an excellent synopsis of the issues that we’ve been discussing since the beginning of the semester. Her use of census data along with specific stories provided a great look into the ways that major shifts in West Indian immigrant populations affected people in their daily lives. As this writing was meant to introduce a collection of writings from a book that I have yet to read, I feel that some of the very specific details- such as where she explains certain authors’ use of language- were lost on me. Overall, Foner’s essay did a great job of recapping the information we’ve learned in the semester and presenting the history that culminates in widespread transnational migration today.

“New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network” by Karen Fog Olwig was one of my favorite academic writings of the semester. I love the way that she completely zeroed in on the experience of one family and then magnified their experiences to highlight bigger societal issues. I find this approach to writing both challenging and effective, if done properly. The challenge of such writing is ensuring that the experiences about which one writes are not extremely isolated events so that readers can relate. If this is done well, the piece smoothly flows from the micro view to the macro view without implying that the world revolves around the subject.

The most compelling part in Olwig’s writing was the underlying discussion on the after effects of desegregation. Though the 1960s and 70s saw great revolution in terms of legislation, the work of eradicating racism from the American psyche was not- and is not- complete. The institutionalization of racism in the mid 20^th century made simple tasks, such as applying for housing loans, nearly impossible for blacks in America. By using the stories from the descendants of the subjects- William and Marie- Olwig portrayed issues like these in a very tangible way.

Lastly, I found Tilly’s writing on “Trust Networks in Transnational Migration” very lively and informative. Before reading the paper, I found this topic uninteresting because I felt that trust networks being at the center of transnational migration was not new news. However, through his personal experiences and statistical data, I felt that reading this paper gave me a bird’s eye view of the topic. Seeing that most of the Caribbean economy depended on the money that family member sent home was shocking. Though I’d realized that most families depend on remittances in some form or another, having statistical data to quantify this dependence was eye opening.

Foner’s “West Indian Migration to NY: An Overview” gives a broad range of topics that we have been discussing throughout the course. She first assesses the Caribbean population’s large influence over the city and their transnational nature. She distinguishes them from American or other ethnic blacks, and focuses mainly on Anglo-Caribbean peoples, which she includes Guyana and Belize. She then starts to analyze the economic/political situation in the Caribbean that lead into its transnational lifestyle. Basically, she describes the diaspora of immigrants who came to NY for better economic opportunities while maintaining ties to the homeland through trust networks. These ties are maintained through emerging communication/travel technology, which help communication, relationship, economic, and family problems. Another result is the spreading political influence globally, as Caribbean in NY participate and decide political issues within America and their homeland. But with transnationalism also comes with a sense of heightened nationalism and racial segregation as it focusing on differentiating people based on shared identity of language, culture, religion, and the sense of home. She also shows the diaspora’s marginalization as Caribbean people struggle as blacks within an existing black and stratified population.

Olwig’s “New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network” examines the often over looked sides of transnational migration by recording a Jamaican family’s progression internationally over multiple generations. She also states how New York acts as a hub for this globally spread population. Her theory challenges previous theories of assimilation and trans-nationalism as a more linear process. The Jamaican family has members in Jamaica, Britain, America, and Canada. They keep in touch through trust networks, sending children to Jamaica or jeans to Britain. They originally lived in Harlem and would move to various parts of Brooklyn.  They have an Afro-European background and have, on average, lighter skin, so in America they usually tried to live in white, middle class communities, in which they did experience racism. However, when they move, the community would soon become more black and the family also felt uncomfortable. After two generations of NYC acting as the locality, the family began to disperse and NYC was no longer the hub. Family had moved back to Jamaica to build a hotel, went to Britain, went to other parts of the United States for job opportunities, or married a Canadian. This story shows how multi-faceted transnational can be, not just linear processes.

Tilly’s “Trust Networks in Transnational Migration” mainly focuses on Latin populations, but expressed the important function of trust networks and gave a more in depth analysis of its methods. Trust networks and remittances passed through these passages often support development within developing countries where major immigrant populations come from. These networks must be long term, based on trust and the risk factor involved, and shared identity- which results in increased nationalism and ethnic divides that may benefit or harm the groups based on race and class. It mainly operates on an honor system, hence the trust, with potential lost of trust and family if broken. The flow of money is essential,but also constitutes social insurance and power, allowing for several backup plans. As generations stay longer in new lands, these networks may disintegrate and traditional ethnic roles and beliefs are challenged within these once strong ethnic enclaves.

Adrian Horczak

People of New York

Professor Jennifer Lutton

March 12, 2015

Reading Journal 7

There has been a large flow of West Indian people to the United States, especially to New York City. West Indian Migration to New York discusses what has fueled this migration and how New York has become an important place for West Indians. In fact, someone would learn more about their culture in New York than in a large city in the Caribbean. Another topic covered in this reading is that West Indians must cope with being categorized the same way as Americans of African decent. White Americans expect them to live in African American neighborhoods which are rife with crime and lack good schools, and West Indians value education. West Indian migrants were not expecting this much discrimination, since the people who live in the Caribbean are practically all black. West Indians feel proud of their ethnicity, while being looked down upon because of it. They try to assert their ethnic identities to claim that they are different from African Americans.

In New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network, Karen Olwig talks with migrant families to trace their experiences in New York. Through the people she studies migration to New York City, which is equivalent to the study of the creation of the United States of America. Olwig explains that many family members inhabited the places West Indians moved to. These kinds of areas encouraged the development of West Indian culture. On the other hand, family members that settled outside of New York were scattered in different areas across North America.

Charles Tilly’s Trust Networks in Transnational Migration describes what an important role trust networks play in migrant families. It describes how so many people must trust the members of their family that go to the United States of America to send remittances. Contrarily to what most believe, people do not cut ties with family when they immigrate. Instead, they try to make their families in the Caribbean financially secure. Together the family can work towards a common goal like buying land or funding a trip for the whole family to eventually come to the United States. Long distance migration is especially risky for trust networks because it is hard to keep contact over long distances, and there are no professional contracts to keep promises. For families in which members do not migrate far, the trust networks are more popular since people can go back and forth easily relaying information and delivering money. These trust networks often function among several families of the same background, and they make certain jobs available for people of those trust networks. However, sometimes the jobs available only provide low wages, so it is important for trust networks to adapt to make members in it prosper.

I live with immigrant parents who plan a trip to Poland every two or three years to visit their family. They own a building there and when they go to Poland, they pick up the money my grandparents pick up from rent. My parents have to trust my grandparents will give them the money they collect. Since trust networks are mainly among family members, it only seems natural that trust will be very important in their relationship.

Often people mistake me, a Polish American for being Russian American because Poles and Russians look alike and their languages are similar. It must be more frustrating for West Indians since people look down upon them for thinking they are African Americans.

Transnationalism, as we discussed in class, is when migrants hold on to strong ties from more than one country at the same time. The reasons for this happening include the unstable political and economic conditions in the home country, the racism in the current country, and over-expectations of the success in the new country. This led immigrants to maintain ties to multiple countries in case the need for migration arise. This transnationalism is further reinforced by technology. With new technology such as online banking, internet, and transportation (jet planes), communication and interaction between countries are more common. Remittance is a transfer of money by a foreign worker to someone in their home country, and was identified with transnationalism. The act of remittance itself is very interesting and made me raise some questions regarding it.

What I wanted to know first was, how much money leaves the United States each year in the form of remittances, and which recipient country receives the most? A quick look at the World Bank website and it revealed that in 2012, an estimated total of 528 billion US dollars were exchanged between countries in the form of remittances. Of that sum, foreign workers in the United States alone sent out 123 billion dollars. Some Caribbean countries received very little, about 6 million in remittances. This is probably because of the relatively small size. Larger Caribbean countries such as Jamaica received about 2.1 billion. Haiti received 1.6 billion and the Dominican Republic received 3.5 billion. The top two recipient countries were India and China with 69 billion and 60 billion dollars respectively. However, we must take into account that both China and India have a much higher population, which would indicate more transnational networks. The World Bank also reports that many countries do not report remittance data, and some remittances are sent through informal means.

Remittances have a huge influence on developing countries. The money these countries receive helps the economy, spurring economic growth. By having a stronger economy, the country can play a larger role in the global economy. This benefits all parties. However, the effects can also be negative. Families who receive remittances have a higher standard of living when compared to those who don’t. this creates a big gap in society.

West Indian Migration to New York further explores the concept of transnationalism, specifically in relation to West Indians, whose migration to New York in recent years has been quite substantial: so substantial that more West Indians immigrate to New York State than any other group. Their movement here has aroused much discussion of how they fit in socially, racially, and economically.

What I found most interesting was the relationship between African Americans and West Indian blacks. When West Indian blacks move here, they are automatically placed into the same racial category as African Americans, but this is not really fair. Back in the Caribbean, West Indians are not really used to the sort of treatment that African Americans receive here; when they eventually move here, they are greeted with racism and “lumped together” with African Americans. As a result of this, hate crimes have been committed against West Indians in the past few decades. Also, the author notes that the living arrangements of West Indians are also heavy affected by none other than the color of their skin. When more West Indians move into a certain area, it causes white people to leave and more African American blacks to move in as well, leading to completely segregated neighborhoods. I feel like it is pretty disheartening that, if this truly is a legitimate phenomenon, people would be willing to go through the arduous process of moving for the reason that people of different skin color move next to them.

One thing that I found a bit strange about this section was the following sentence: “It is not unusual for whites to cross the street or clutch their handbags when they see a young black man approach—and they do not stop to wonder whether the man is West Indian or African American.” Well by that logic, they don’t stop to wonder whether he is West Indian, African American, African, or even Brazilian. I’m just not sure of the point the author is trying to make here. Is she trying to say that African Americans pose more of a threat? If so, that’s simply an unfair connection. The most reliable contributor to an increase in the crime rate is increased poverty.

In New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network, I was really fascinated by how the author was able to tell the story of the three families and tie in their stories in a way that truly showed their Caribbean pride and heritage. In the interview with Bill, the author asks him whether or not he was disappointed with his experience of the United States. His response indicated that he was happy that he had lived in the U.S. because, essentially, it opened him up to all sorts of people, allowing him to go to other parts of the world with more ease. I find that to be a bit of a contrast to my experience. I think this is largely due to the fact that he was, in the first place, a foreigner in the United States. For him, the United States was just a medium through which to open up cultural doors; for me, or more so for other “stereotypical” Americans, I have the culture but I’m seen through an “American” lens by people whom with I interact with overseas. Foreigners in America, at least in my experience, are . This negatively affects the way I am able to experience certain countries.

In Trust Networks in New York, the intricacies of trust networks are examined and rationalized. Trust networks play a very large role in both sending and receiving countries both economically and socially. The author clearly defines trust networks by the quality that individuals in such networks are not only part of a network between them and their immediate family and friends, but that members of such networks are expected to be part of a community of people who must help each other. For something to be a trust network, “members of trust networks … place major valued collective enterprises such as the preservation of their faith, placement of their children, provisions for their old age, and protection of personal secrets at risk” to other group members’ untrustworthy qualities. Without trust networks, and a sense of transnationalism amongst immigrants, the major sending countries would inevitably witness their own demise as their population dwindles, and economic activity is not sufficient. The reading describes that transnational immigrants remain loyal to their home countries and active in supporting the economic and political stability of their countries as well, as members of trust networks are also often voters in their homelands.

Economically speaking, immigrants are not only involved in sending over remittances, they are basically expected to. One example given in the passage, a Mexican village called Ticuani is examined. In Ticuani, it turns out that more people born there are currently living abroad, mostly in New York, than those who are there currently. This loss of home population has transformed the community and its economy, giving rise to an economy that survives on the donations and remittances sent by those abroad. As a small village, there had to be work obligations that constituents had to meet, otherwise things wouldn’t get done. Since so many were living abroad, these members made up their obligations through the process of sending direct financial help. At one point, as the town was in need of a new water system, a Committee threatened households whom it deemed were able to pay a $300 tax, and who did not pay, with no water in their Ticuani homes. Not surprisingly, almost everyone paid. Whether this displays true loyalty to their homeland or simply submitting to the demands of some powerful political body, it does show that the group pressure in trust network allows such demands to be made. No individual wants to be untrustworthy. If individuals do show signs of untrustworthiness, they are immediately excised from said network. People in these trust networks can be ostracized simply for giving more attention to new American friends.

What I am amazed by is the ability for these people who have uprooted their lives in their home country, who came from modest means, and can now contribute financially to other people. But as the author says in the end of the passage, the benefits of trust networks are dwindling for members. The immense pressure and apparent lack of economic mobility that comes along with being a member makes it seem unlikely that these networks will survive unless they adapt.

The major emphasis of this week’s reading was on New York, and how it was such an important central focal point for immigrants coming over from the Caribbean region. The article mostly focused on the West Indians, and how these groups of individuals gradually formed what we today know as transmigrants. In the first article, the migration of the West Indians was summarized by stating the important factors that affected these individuals. One important factor that led them to move in the first place was the horrible economical conditions back in their home country which led to unemployment, limited resources, and scarce opportunity to better their life. Once having left their home countries, these individuals faced another major factor of racism and segregation in New York (where most of the immigrants arrived) This unwelcoming environment allowed the newly migrated immigrants to miss their homes even more because despite it being horrible in terms of financial status, at least they were well respected back home. Many of these individuals were given a cumulative identity of just being “West Indians” and they were failed to be recognized as being their own unique identity. This nativism and racism that these individuals faced, allowed them to keep strong ties with their home countries, thus forming the transnational networks that spanned across numerous countries.

These transnational networks were emphasized in the third reading, especially in financial terms. The title of the article “Trust Networks” concisely gets the major point across that these networks were strong ties with their home country, and with people back home, thus increasing their level of trust between the individuals. One of the major reasons of these transnational networks was to get money from one point to another point. As mentioned in the reading, remittances were crucial for people back home, and even people in New York. Personally I was astonished how remittances were sent from home countries to individuals in U.S, however, it makes sense that these individuals needed help in starting up their life in some place completely new, and where they faced racism/ segregation. Many of these individuals relied on these transnational networks just to survive, which emphasizes how they relied on so much trust. These networks considering their capability, were quite remarkable because at some points, they involved the transfer of billions of dollars. Many families relied on the money being sent from other countries in the form of remittances, to survive in their current economic slump. These networks involved numerous individuals, thus if one person were to ruin the general flow of the money, it would devastate many families. These networks involved the lending and transfer of money, and if fraud actions were committed by few individuals, it would hurt many, thus it empathizes the importance of trust. A personal example would be that when my family moved from Afghanistan to India to immediately escape the war conditions. Afterwards, half of our family migrated to the U.S, while the other half stayed in India momentarily. During this time, my older brother and sister sent money to us every month from America, until eventually, we migrated to America as well. This emphasizes my family’s personal transnational network, and even though we all live in America, we still have ties with our home countries of Afghanistan and India, hence transnational.

The second article was the most intriguing in my opinion, considering the way Olwig conducted her research based on personal interviews. However, although many other individuals have conducted interviews and used them as viable results, the other individuals mostly correlate the interviews, and state their findings in a summarized manner, combining numerous interviews. However, Olwig’s article treated the interviews as unique examples in her article, and actually stated the personal experiences of families she interviewed in a distinct manner in her article, to describe the complex action of migration. Another aspect of the article that was intriguing was how Olwig started the article by stating how she will debunk the definition of migration, being that it is only the act of moving from one country to another. However, Olwig emphasizes that the process of migration is much more complex, involving many other important factors, and I agree with her based on my personal experiences when migrating to the U.S. Olwig states that the process of migration does not end when one person arrives at a different country, that is just one step of migration. Migration involves all the hardships that the individuals face before migrating, during their actual act of moving, and even after they arrive, when they are attempting to assimilate into the setting which is inevitably unwelcoming because of the racism and segregation there. The process of migration is much more complex, because during the time, it wasn’t a short occurrence, but it was a gradual life changing period of time.

Tilly’s Trust Networks in Transnational Migration considers trust networks, the impact of which had not been studied on a large scale. Despite this, trust networks have had very significant effects on the economies of the US as well as foreign countries. In 2002, remittances to the Caribbean accounted for a fifth of the world total, and that is just counting official remittances. Many of these trust networks allow money and goods to bypass official channels which is one of the purposes for these networks.

The main reason for these networks derives from an immigrants purpose for migrating. One major reason to migrate to the US is for the economic opportunities. Once an immigrant earns money, he can send money back to family he might have left behind. This purpose of this money may be to take care of his family, or to elevate their standard of living. However, there must be a certain confidence that this hard earned money will be used for the purposes intended by the immigrant. There must be trust. Many other points are also placed within the network. These include the channels through which money and goods are moving, whether it be a family member, a friend, or official transportation services.

Once these networks are firmly established, so too are the roles of their participants. An immigrant will be working hard to send money and goods over to the homeland. The family member received this money and goods are often expected to take care of other family members, or use the money to build a house, repair a house. Sometimes this is used to show the society that they have become financially established.

Trust networks can also be passed onto the second generation. Children who grow up experiencing the workings of the network may be expected to uphold the network once they grow older. However, a network may sometimes be lost on the second generation. When a family becomes established in a new country, they may lose the need to maintain these social and economic ties.

This week we read the article West Indian Migration to New York: An Overview by Nancy Foner. This article generally summarized the migration of West Indians or Caribbean’s to New York. She states the reasons that caused West Indians to leave their home countries and move to New York as “Scarce resources, overpopulation, high unemployment and underemployment, limited opportunities for advancement—these have long spurred West Indians to look abroad…” Once the movement of people had begun, transnational networks were and continue to be essential. These were emphasized greatly in this week’s readings. The migrants keep strong and vibrant connections to their home country and family members elsewhere. Another big factor in the experience of West Indians is race and ethnicity because their blackness affected their reception in New York and elsewhere.

This week we also read New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network by Karen Fog Olwig. This article outlines how important the transnational networks are to transnational migrants. These manifest themselves in several ways. There is the economic aspect, in which remittances are sent from the new country back to family members back in their place of origin. There is also money set from the home country to the United States. Family members send money to younger people that are studying or to a family member that wants to buy a house. The family members also help direct flow of migrating relatives to places where there is favorable or guaranteed employment.

Another important role they played was that of childcare. When Caribbean people left their countries of origin they couldn’t afford to bring the entire family, so the head of the household would often move leaving the rest of the family behind. The children of that family would stay behind and remain with relatives until the entire family could move. This also went the opposite way, where the families abroad would sent their children back to the home country for a more strict education or to reconnect with their culture.

In the article, Olwig uses personal interviews with West Indian migrants to extrapolate the experience in a micro view to that of a macro view. The story of Bill was especially interesting. His family was an upper-middle class family in Jamaica and they decided to move to New York for a better future. But upon arriving they realized that they weren’t as welcome as they thought they would be. They were always lumped in with other West Indians and they hated that because back in the Caribbean they were perceived as much different than all the others. His family moved to white neighborhood but always the neighborhood would become predominantly West Indian. It is an interesting story of having to struggle with one’s identity when they are not perceived the way that they want to be.

The last article we read this week was Trust Networks in Transnational Migration by Charles Tilly. This article focused more on the transnational networks that are established by migrating peoples. Tilly starts by showing that the money sent abroad in the form of remittances does not have a negligible effect. There are huge amounts of money moving through transnational networks all the time, the estimate given being $60 billion in a year. It shows the amount of dependence and trust that people have on these networks. They are essential to the survival of many families caught in the transnational migrant situation.

The members of the transnational networks take huge risks in placing so much trust in other. For example, they will lend family members money for a house, education, or wedding. These people could so easily lose all their money but still have trust in members of the network. Tilly argues that these networks make their members form extreme bonds of trust with one another. Simultaneously, with all the trust that is inherent in these transnational networks and with all the benefits, come many obligations. The members must comply with their role in the network and must always be in constant motion

In Nancy Foner’s article, “West Indian Migration to New York”, the many consequences of black Caribbean immigrants moving into the city are discussed and analyzed. Why are these immigrants coming in large numbers to New York City and how are they impacting and altering the city? How are the second-generation families being affected by their community surroundings? As Foner explains, the Caribbean immigrants who came from the British colonies left their native countries for many reasons. Slavery and colonial rule were the main reasons why the Caribbean families still faced economic instability and financial crisis. Overpopulation and the influence and dependence on world powers led high unemployment rates to force the young Caribbean population to New York and other port cities. New York was an especially popular port city since many cargos would drop off fruits and other goods to the main port cities. This created a trade network and route that Caribbean immigrants could take to reach their new destinations.

The establishment of transnational networks vastly impacted the Caribbean families and the community of New York City. Many of the immigrants would write letters to their families and send them on the cargo ships, they would send money back home to their families in the native countries, they would bring other family members from the native countries to the city with opportunities of job employment, etc. These connections helped establish many cultural businesses that impacted the community, such as transcontinental banks and information centers to help the influx of immigrants. The women were the main key in keeping these networks alive and strong. They were responsible for writing letters home and bringing more family members from their native countries to New York City. This helped create financial stability in the city; all the family members lived in close proximity with each other and this allowed them to help each other during harsh times. Families would send their kids back to the native countries at certain times during their childhood to remind the kids of their cultural history and heritage, thus strengthening the ties that these Caribbean immigrants kept to their native countries. As the years went on, technological advances also aided and strengthened these transcontinental ties. Telephone lines allowed immigrants and families to directly talk to one another, thus informing each other about politics and other worldly affairs. Once the native countries formed stabilized political systems, politicians focused their attentions on Caribbean immigrants for political support back in the country. Some families even moved on to other countries, such as Britain or Canada, from New York City and still kept ties to people in each of these countries.

As time went on, racial equality started to develop as the United States government banned racism. However, black West Indians were still forced to live in the poor communities as the white families left the area. The Caribbean people were provided horrible government services; low budget schools, small houses, etc. This push to make all the black people live together in the same area caused many racial tensions between the black West Indians and the native African Americans. These people all tended to view themselves as different from each other. However, with their arrival to New York City, they were categorized into one large group of blacks and this created more racial hierarchies within the community. They started to form their own organizations as they tried to compete with each other for jobs and other resources. It is interesting to note that Foner explains a certain scenario that tended to happen as the second generation formed their own cultural differences. With their less prominent accent, it was hard for community members to differentiate between Caribbean immigrants and black natives. This tended to harm the second-generation Caribbean people because their ethnic status was considered higher than the native blacks in the community at that time. Without the accents, these Caribbean second-generation kids were sometimes mistaken for native blacks, which fueled their anger and resentment. The Caribbean population has come a long way as they influenced many of the neighborhoods in New York City, such as Harlem, Flatbush, Crown Heights, etc.

In Karen Fog Olwig’s article “New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network” shows perspectives of how the Caribbean immigrants are integrated into society. One perspective claims that certain immigrants become integrated into separate subcultures of the community rather than the mainstream American society. Another critical approach explains the wide range of connections that Caribbean immigrants tend to keep over their lifetime. They keep their connections to the native country they come from and to many other countries that they probably lived in for a while, such as Britain or Canada.

In the first family that the author interviewed, the family was a middle class fishing family who lived in the Jamaican society. Marie, who was the mother of 8 children, raised her kids in a European fashioned house; they had to speak proper English grammar, they had proper names, and a nice educational background. This family was driven to migrate due to their drive for proper education for their kids. This interview showed how family connections worked overseas. Uncles that were present in America would help the kids receive the papers to come to America in order to receive their education. The family placed pressure on some of the children to become doctors and lawyers; all their earnings went into funding this education because they wanted their children to have a nice profession. The older brother Bill helped his younger siblings to come to New York. The whole family started working in the same corporation that Bill was working at. This showed how transcontinental family ties helped provide job opportunities for many of the other family members.

The communities that these Caribbean immigrants lived in were friendly and close knit; everyone knew each other. However, the surrounding white neighborhoods around the Caribbean neighborhoods were more foreboding and unwelcoming. The children faced racism in school and it was hard for them to comprehend the fact that it was hard for them to gain high wage jobs. White families started to leave the communities as more black people moved into the area. The white families were concerned that their house values would go down and that they were threatened by the presence of blacks in their community. However, the younger generations in the 1970s started to move to other states in the Americas. These younger people never were able to identify with their American culture or their Caribbean culture, putting them at crossroads in their lives.

In Charles Tilly’s article “Trust Networks in Transnational Migration”, many prior notions about immigrants are debuted. Many people believe that immigrants cut off ties with their native countries when they move to a new country. However, statistics show that large amounts of remittances are passed along the routes between the United States of America and to the poor developing countries. These “trust networks” influence the politics and economics of many areas. They are networks in which immigrants place their resources at a risk for the long-term benefit for the whole family. These resources can include exchanging of money, goods, and services. In New York, the Salvadoran immigrants, for example, send their money and goods between the native country and their current country through the viajeros. Viajeros are people who frequently travel between two countries and help insure social control over the area. Wire services were very important to Latin American migrants in the United States of America. These trust networks came with a price. If you failed or refused to help out family or community members, you were ostracized and shunned from the community for being a deserter. Transcontinental ties had lasting impacts as they brought more families to the Americas and affected how the immigrant communities in New York City developed.

This weeks readings kind of reinforced the ideas from last weeks. The idea that I’m talking about obviously being transnationalism. A quick recap of last week explored what it meant to be a transnational. Traditionally people think that transnationals drop all relations with their home country in favor of the fruits of a new country. However, the word has been redefined to refer to people who maintain a dual identity for two countries.  “Trust Networks in Transnational Migration” focuses more on the unifying theme of money in migration from one country to another.

The trust networks that Tilly describes involve a sending of remittances from family members in more profitable countries such as the United States to their home countries, particularly in Latin America and the Caribbean as this article examines. An important aspect to this trust network is the ability for migrants to find successful foundations for their trust networks. Tilly elaborates that migrants tend to find narrow opportunities in for work, housing, sociability, and welfare often due to levels of discrimination found in modern day society. He continues that when these needs are met, the trust network flourishes and migrants can maintain strong ties with their families back home until the point when, hopefully, more family members can make the transition to the new country. However, when these needs are not met, the system fails and transnational ties are not so easily maintained.

Another major aspect of trust networks that Tilly points out is the importance of a second generation to continue out a particular network. However, this opportunity is often limited by the “social segregation or integration of the immigrant stream at the destination.” Often times, as previously mentioned, when opportunities are limited due to unfair discrimination of immigrants, the trust network ultimately fails.

This article particularly spoke out to me for multiple reasons. For starters, my dad was a first generation immigrant from Peru, just like Tilly, when he made the trip to New York City. He was the first of his family to make the trek, and any other possibilities of other family members coming over depended on his success. Like other immigrants he often sent home remittances to help support his family. He became very lucky with the opportunities he found and the family he started and eventually he paved the way for his brother, my tio, to make the trip as well. Soon after my tio was able to settle and start a family of his own all because of the trust network that my father had started many years prior.

The other reason this article spoke out to me was, that being a second generation immigrant, I need to find my own successful opportunities to possibly start my own trust networks. Though we don’t quite share the same strong connections that my father does with Peru, my brothers and I could play a pivotal role in the ability of our first cousins to make the trip up to New York. Furthermore, I feel safe knowing that within one of the greatest cities in the world, my opportunities will never be limited. I think it is safe to say that there is very limited, if any, segregation of society for different races such as myself. This leaves me with all the opportunity I could possibly need to be successful in my life as a second generation immigrant and to build a successful trust network of my own.

West Indian Migration to New York by Nancy Foner

I found that Foner’s introduction was a great recap to the topic of transnationalism. In it, she not only provides an adept “overview” of the West Indian migration to New York City, but also dives into the two large themes of race and transnationalism. Like other readings that we tackled, Foner mentions that many West Indians initially traveled to the US in search of a better life, a life that was not available in their country of origin. New York, being a center of trade (she specifically mentions bananas and tourism), opened its doors to many immigrants. Once various networks were established, immigrants were steadily coming in until they met obstacles due to legislation and the depression. Interestingly, she goes on to mention the comparison of previous West Indian migrations to the modern wave that started after 1965. The communities are dramatically different, with NYC currently having a much larger black population, and today’s Caribbean peoples not coming from British colonialism. West Indian populations have extended out of Harlem and Brooklyn into the Bronx and southern Queens.

Foner then focuses on “Transnational Ties,” where she immediately turns to Watkins-Owens to detail the trust that exists within remittances, and the importance women have played in migrating families. She notes two important factors that allow these ties to maintain strength: technology and communication. Technology allows for faster and easier travel, while contact via telephones allowed migrants to get the latest news and even “participate in family discussions” (8). Many immigrants were also active in the political realm, not only within New York City but also within the Caribbean. Some even used their political pull in New York to provide aid to their native village or town. She discusses how Ticuani immigrants, who were later discussed in Olwig’s article, were able to raise over $100,000 for a pipe system. The idea of maintaining transnational ties helps redefine the apparently stereotypical image of immigrants, where they leave an oppressive country, cut any ties necessary, and move to America in search of opportunity. Possibly since I grew up in a family that has maintained a strong transnational network, I never had this view of immigrants. Yet Foner, and also the other readings we have examined, clearly dissects the process of establishing these transnational networks and their benefits.

Foner finally moves on to discourse the themes of race and ethnicity. She notes how modern Caribbean immigrants face a lower level of discrimination than earlier immigrants. This particularly exists among young black Caribbean men, who face discrimination for whites and police officers. One interesting thing she discusses is the notion of being “black” that is enforced on Caribbean immigrants when they enter America. The idea of being black only refers to certain peoples within the Caribbean (for example in Jamaica it refers mostly to impoverished, darker skinned people). Yet, in New York City nearly every West Indian immigrant was simply considered black.

New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network by Karen Olwig

In her article, Olwig takes the idea of transnational ties and analyzes it through a specific family. Her style of approach is via direct interview questions, as opposed to being a fly on the wall. Her questions focused on the family’s history, and their experiences and reasons for emigrating from Jamaica. The family’s main reason for emigrating was to pursue opportunities that were not available within Jamaica. This did not necessarily mean migrating to the United States, as one of the sons, Henry, left for Great Britain to join the RAF. It was an already established kinship network that brought the son Bill to New York. Bill migrated in order to pursue his academic and professional goals of becoming a doctor. Although his dreams did not come to fruition, he made a decent career for himself. He is representative of the ideal of many Caribbean parents hoping to send their children to a different country in order to live a better life (having transnational ties allows this to be possible).

Once the entire family migrated, they ended up living in the same neighborhood within Brooklyn. Their social life was similar to the one they held in Jamaica: a tight, knit family, living within close proximity of each other. Cousins became more like siblings, and the family met often for various occasions. Having this close relations within the family led to the creation of trust and further strengthen the kinship network. Even when the family began to disperse, domestically and internationally, they kept in touch via modern forms of communication.

Within the new neighborhood the family met several instances of racism and discrimination. White people began to move out, fearing that the property values of their homes would drop with the influx of the new population. Racism even existed strongly within the schools, and molded immigrants from a young age. In terms of education, the parents were mostly in charge, and strongly suggested the path in which their children would choose. These paths too were affected by discrimination. When one daughter, Kathy, decided to become a daughter, her mother clearly reminded her that American Ballet at the time was a strictly white profession. She instead offered a job with more stability and possible economic benefits.

One thing to note is the general deterioration over time of the neighborhoods that house these influxes of immigrants. At first the family noted the pristine state in which the neighborhood was kept when they first arrived. Yet, as the whites began to move out, these areas became redlined. The neighborhood, having lost economic interest, and the failure of the black community to unite under a single political force, eventually decayed. As one member put it, it has gone “drug crazy… in the dark you must look over your shoulder all the time” (153).

Despite the opportunities that New York had to offer, many family members had left. Mostly the second-generation, who have built up their economic and social foundation, were able to move out to other states and countries. Some even felt that they truly did not fit in (i.e. Bill), lacking a true social connection within New York, and decided to return to Jamaica.

Trust Networks in Transnational Migration by Charles Tilly

In his article, Tilly focuses on the importance of trust that defines transnational networks and the effects of remittances. Remittances are key for the families of immigrant who remained in the motherland. In 2004, as Tilly notes, 69% of the $182 billion of remittances went to developing countries.

The interesting idea of trust networks is that they can only exist with stakes. Although being kin or part of an organization are initially signs of a trust network, Tilly argues, “Trust consists of playing valued outcomes at risk of others’ malfeasance, mistakes or failures” (7). Once again, Tilly notes that these networks are based on communication, and handle the flow of goods and services. Risks exist in long distance migration, as Tilly says, yet the existence of a trust network mitigates those risks.

Remittances go hand in hand with trust networks. It can help reorganize the wealth and power of the native people, reform their lives (possibly to a point where they are solely dependent on remittances), and even create new trust networks. This was the case of the Ticuani people from Mexico. Once again, this is the case where a New York organization of Ticuani immigrants was able to raise enough money, notably more than the local government was able to, in order to create a new pipe system. After this occurred, however, the Ticuani immigrants continued to remain in contact with their homeland. The payed specific taxes, and even sent their children to visit. The Salvadoran immigrants are a similar case. They utilized viajeros, or people who frequently traveled between two countries. These viajeros were able to transport remittances, which were usually “goods, money or information.”

One point I found interesting is that certain families become molded around trust networks and remittances. It comes to a point where they teach their children to “praise” those who send remittances. It was noted how children would anxiously take trips to the post office, hoping for some money or a letter. It does not stop there however; these children would then go on to imagine a day where they too can send remittances to their home country.

Tilly ends off on a strong note. He displays how lacking a trust network opens immigrants up to a variety of obstacles. Specifically they have no safety net, socially or economically.

The three articles that we had to read for this week were very interesting and relatable to my experience as a 1.5-generation immigrant from an immigrant Ecuadorian family. I see my family’s immigrant experience reflected in the discussions that we have in class about transnationalism and how immigrants maintain connections and networks with people in their homeland to help ease their transition to the United States and also as a way to feel a sense of belonging. Also, when we talk about remittances, I cannot help but think about people in my church who send remittances to their families in their homeland and parents from foreign countries who send money to their children here in New York City to help them (as much as possible) to pay for a post-secondary education and living expenses. One personal example that I always think of is my Aunt Patricia. She immigrated to New York City in the mid 1990’s and left behind her firstborn son under the care of her older sister. She sends remittances to her sister every single week to help pay for my cousin’s expenses. As extended family, we can only imagine the pain it must be to have a son so far away and not be able to go back and visit because of her current situation in the United States. The perception that the United States is a place full of opportunities is so true and common amongst immigrants. Even when they arrive and see that the situation here is bad because of racism, inability to adapt and different ideologies, as well as economic situations, immigrants still tend to think that they are better off than they would be in their homelands. This may be true for certain cases but not for others. I guess that it depends on the person’s experience in this nation. It is interesting to me how two people can go through similar situations and based on a person’s background, personality and way of thinking, the two people can have two completely different outcomes. Some immigrants end up establishing a life in the United States and form a dual identity where they become loyal to both their native country’s culture and New York City’s culture. Others feel that it is too much of a burden to deal with the problems that come with being an immigrant in New York and eventually decide to move back. However, even in those cases we see that first that person procreates or establishes a network that would look after them once they move back to their homeland.

In “West Indian Migration in New York: An Overview,” Nancy Foner discusses West Indian immigration to the United States. She talks about different aspects of this immigration and explores the effects of Caribbean immigration both in New York City and in their homelands. She starts out her text by stating that more than 40% of New York City’s black population can trace their origins back to the West Indies. This came as a shocker to me because I had always thought that the black population in New York City consisted mostly of descendants of black southerners. Then she proceeds to talk about how this group of people highlights transnationalism. What surprised me the most is that despite the fact that these people are present in New York in huge numbers; they have been ignored in immigration debates. You would think that people would converse about this group of people the most. I think that Foner is very accurate when she mentions that the main reasons why many West Indians abandon their homelands and immigrate elsewhere are because of scarce resources, overpopulation, high unemployment, limited opportunities for advancement and inflation. I agree with her when she says that small island economies cannot fulfill the needs of all the people. This brings up the idea of whether or not Caribbean islands are truly independent. Even though they say they are, they often depend on bigger countries and remittances from the black diaspora abroad to aid them. Immigrants are usually brought to the U.S. by family members or members of transnational networks. It is interesting to see how technological advancements have made the establishment and maintenance of transnational networks an actual thing. Nowadays, Facebook, facetime, email, telephone, and Skype have made immediate communication between family members in two different parts of the world possible. Better technology has even shaped people’s expectations of how New York is before they migrate.

Foner also brings up the idea of racism and discrimination based on skin color in her text. I find it interesting how two different groups of people can be combined into one huge group of people based solely on skin color. It just shows me that some people can be very ignorant and superficial. Although physical appearance is often the main quality that we stereotypically associate with a race, there is more than just skin color. Culture, political ideas, religion all form the identity of a group of people. Many times educated West Indian immigrants would want to move to white neighborhoods to disassociate themselves from the native black community, however, white people did not think that the immigrants were any better so they would move away. It is like Naomi said in class, people leaving the cafeteria table when the weird kid arrives. This experience must have been terrible because it basically showed the immigrants that there were clear social barriers based on race and everyone had their pre-established place. No one was allowed to move up the social ladder. This racism and discrimination were the reasons why many Caribbean immigrants began to establish transnational networks. They needed to feel a sense of belonging and pride. Otherwise all they had was suffering because of racism, segregation and imposed inferiority. However, because white people would move out when West Indian immigrants moved into their neighborhoods and black people would move in, West Indians became part of the broader African American community.

The Civil Rights Movement played a significant role in the lives of Caribbean immigrants and their families. After the Civil Rights Movement, they had access to a wider array of jobs in the mainstream economy and were often considered better and more educated than native blacks. This change in tolerance vs. intolerance of West Indian immigrants by the American public changed the perception of West Indian descendants towards the United States. It is interesting to see how second and third generations of West Indians will identify themselves. I find it highly insulting and very sad that many people believed that dark skin is associated with poverty. It is interesting to see how West Indian immigrants do better than African American because of connections and the way they portray themselves to the public as more reliable. Overall, Foner discusses the idea that Caribbean immigration to New York City has created a distinction and changed people’s perception of a monolithic blackness. Even within the Caribbean community, there is so much diversity. Many times I wondered why some people who were from Caribbean nations that I ignorantly believed were mainly Christian, identified as Hindus. It turns out that people from Southeast Asia were taken to the Caribbean as slaves. In conclusion, this article cleared up some misconceptions I had and reminded me of discussions we have had in class.

In “New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network,” Karen Fog Olwig discusses a Caribbean immigrant family’s experience in New York City. She goes really in-depth into this family’s life and goes from specifics to generalizations. Many people believe that immigrants are turned into free and upwardly mobile Americans. This is not the case. The process of incorporation is much more complex. I agree with the idea that many authors believe that transnationalism constitutes a form of resistance to being subordinated within a country like the U.S. People always look for a sense of belonging in a community. If they do not get that where they live, they will look for it in their place of origin or communities that they have had a history with. Like I mentioned before, many immigrant families see New York City as a place where their dreams can come true. Once they move to New York, they face the hardships that come with being an immigrant and thus establish kin or friend networks that will help them deal with the process of assimilation. I think of New York as a place where immigrants can transition to an American way of living. This city has so much diversity that people will not have a hard time adapting as opposed to trying to adapt to a place in the Midwest where most of the population is white.

I found it interesting how Olwig explicitly mentions the importance of familial networks. I guess since my family and my Aunt Patricia’s family are the only ones from our extended family that are currently residing in the U.S. we do not take into account the importance of familial networks. Religious networks and friend networks have been more important. But I guess that just has to do with our experience. In other cases, family plays an important role in helping people adapt and become assimilated into American society. Olwig brought up some West Indian cultural aspects that caught my attention. Proper manners are apparently very important in West Indian culture and they determine a person’s position in society (more so than skin color). Also, when the second generation does not meet their parents’ expectations, they feel really bad and are sometimes disowned. I only associated this with Chinese and Asian families. I also found it very interesting to see how the meaning and significance of New York changes from one generation to another. For the immigrants New York mean better educational, economic and social opportunities. For the immigrants’ children, New York was seen a springboard from whence they could establish a life somewhere else. It is interesting to see how according to the time they arrived to New York, their experience in schools, public places, interactions with natives and upbringing, some people fell in love with New York, some hated it and moved back and others moved to Europe.

In class, Professor said that most West Indian families were matrifocal. I never thought that women had such a high status in Caribbean culture. Also the fact that the family unit is central and important to immigration is very important. At church, I have learned the spiritual importance of families and how they are the foundations of society. But this article made me think how even in worldly things, families are important. An individual with familial support is stronger than an individual without familial support. I truly enjoyed reading Olwig’s article. The fact that she went from the micro to the macro was very unique. Articles like this one catch my attention more because I can relate my experience to the experiences described. It is an interesting and creative way to get a point across.

In “Trust Networks in Transnational Migration,” Tilly talks about the role that trust networks play in transnationalism. Family and friends on both ends have to trust each other in the sending and receiving of remittances. I was surprised when I read that remittances play a huge role in the economy of some of the receiving nations. My parents do not send remittances. They migrated to this country to work and pay off debts that they had in Ecuador. After they finished paying it, there was no reason to send remittances. Sometimes, they send money to their parents as birthday or mother/father’s day presents. However, it is not something that I see as common. But I guess that remittances are part of the lives of other people. Reading about this has awakened an interest in seeing to what extent trust networks play central parts in the organization, maintenance and transformations of long distance streams across the world. Tilly brings up the interesting idea that many people think of immigrants as one-way travelers that are desperate for work or welfare in a richer country and cut home ties as soon as possible in order to take advantage of the new country. This is not true. Many immigrants form dual identities and serve both their homeland and the country that they reside in. Both places have played a huge role in the lives of these people. However, I do agree with the idea that some immigrants may get stuck in trust networks only and this may limit the opportunities that they have. They may find themselves confined to niches that are only based on these networks, preventing them from growing as people and enjoying their lives. The emphasis of transnationalism demonstrates that the author knows 100% incorporation is impossible. Overall, I find this topic of transnationalism very interesting. This course has made me think about it in an in-depth sort of way.

This weeks readings by Olwig, Tilly, and Foner all explored the idea of transnationalism, kin and remittances. The authors discussed families moving from the Caribbean to, primarily, NYC. Olwig’s piece was my favorite because it really connected the reader to the three families and their history. The author did a great job of really understanding how the family spread through London, New York, Nova Scotia and Jamaica. I was able to relate to the family because my family, like many immigrants, left the homeland and went to NYC. Many family members then traveled outward to other states, countries, or returned back to the homeland, like Bill did. My family and I also experienced calling upon family members to the United States and helping them find jobs and homes.

Tilly’s work really emphasized the importance of trust networks. I hadn’t put much thought into this concept, but I’ve come to realize what a major role it plays in immigration and family life. Trust networks allow for migration, create a community, and allow family members to keep in touch with home countries. It’s a path for members to transfer goods and money to one another across borders, find jobs in new countries, and homes. This article also introduced remittances within trust networks. It was eye opening and very informative. Families often send back money to the home country, pay taxes, own property, and have a say in politics. My family, for example, still owned an apartment in our home country while living here. We had a slight role in the economy. In Israel, for example, there is currently an influx of wealthy French property owners who keep apartments in Israel. They add to the economy of the country and have caused apartment rates to skyrocket as demand increased.

Foner touched upon transnational ties, the changes in migration and racial prejudice. Foner discussed how migration has changed between the generation, and NYC was no longer the same. She brings up the point that the West Indian community has spread out from central Harlem to Crown Heights, Flatbush, into Queens and Northeast Bronx. Families no longer just go straight to Harlem and Bedford-Stuyvesant. People are further spread out, and it is true for people of all culture that migrate to NYC. The once Italian or Jewish neighborhoods have changed, and it is very common to see multicultural neighborhoods now. Foner also spoke about transnationalism, which was covered in the other articles as well. What I found to be original in her work, or just different from the other articles, was that she included “future research”. This was written in an anthropological angle, which differed from what we read before. Her suggestions opened up new questions and called to dig deeper into other cities and patterns of migrations.

Nancy Foner’s “West Indian Migration to New York” and Karen Fog Olwig’s “New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network” are two publications that transitioned the study of the first Caribbeans in America, specifically in New York, to the impact that this migration has had, both in their home nations and to the place that they moved to. Although many have been forces to migrate due to economic struggles, these migrants became important links to many transnational ties. The first migrants to foreign land go in search of opportunity and to help their families back at home. The first migrant leads to more migrants settling, some older in search for work, some who are children sent to go to school. These transnational networks cause the transfer of people, money, and goods. These transfers are made to benefit the network, both at the foreign countries, and at the origin country.

Olwig’s paper gave me a better understanding of transnational networks mostly because it was an anthropological angle. The Jamaican family that Olwig interviewed were fortunate enough to be of the middle class in Jamaica, and attempted to reach this same status in New York, but were unfortunately able to do so. In the one family, there were so many different reactions to the limitations placed on black Americans. Brooklyn became an area of the lower class, and the white Americans judged that the family belonged there because they were also black. They were lucky enough to build enough transnational ties that they could move to other states, Canada, Europe, or even back to Jamaica, and still have enough to own property there.

The later generations had through live through the racism as they grew up, and that probably fueled them to want to leave even more. The story of Kathy’s friend and her mom was horrendous, and a terrible thing to be exposed to as a child. All a kid could do is think to themselves “What is wrong with me?” and doubt themselves. Kathy’s family was lucky enough to be able to move to other places where there was less racism, but there are other migrants who are not so lucky. The less fortunate that can’t handle the racism move back to their home country, ashamed and disheartened. Others who can’t afford that or don’t want to face going home as a failure stay and slowly break their ties with their network. In Brown Girl, Brownstones by Paulle Marshall, Silla explained that what the white’s saw as lazy blacks, were actually blacks that were broken by the racism and hardships that the had to face. Thankfully there are political and social movements to help these people, but they focus more on forcing equality than helping the undermined.

Adding to the pressure on the transnational ties are the trust networks. Smaller trust networks make up a larger transnational network. There are many things that can go wrong on both ends of trust networks, however both have to trust in the other to do their part. Remittances, both to and from the transmigrant have to be in continuous flow to keep the trust up. A serious consequence for not sending back money or goods to those at home is that if they ever decide to go back home, they will not be well received. A person that has to go to a new place with a limited range of opportunity that the trust network gives will have a lot of pressure to succeed. I assume that the family that I have here that came from a small town in Ecuador is part of one trust network, although the tightest one is between my mom’s side of the family, most notably her brothers and sisters. Through this trust network, we are planning the marriage in Ecuador of my brother, who lives here, and his fiancé, who lives in Ecuador. This summer I will be a viajero who will transport goods from here to Ecuador and participate in my brother’s wedding.

Our readings on Tuesday focused on Transnationalism and the different familial and cultural networks that were established through it. In Foner’s introductory article, she reminded us how transnationalism and the large influx of West Indian migration began and continued on through the 20^th century. Social and economic problems, such as overpopulation, scare resources and high unemployment, along with the newly altered U.S. immigration law in 1965, lead to mass migration from the West Indies after a long period of reduced movements. New York’s availability of jobs combined with the ongoing “White Flight” in many predominantly white neighborhoods, lead to the perfect storm for large West Indian immigration into the city. Unlike earlier migration though, new technologies and cheap airfare prices enabled many displaced peoples to remain in contact with their home country. No longer did one need to reserve a phone to make an international call; international phone plans were aplenty and they were very affordable. Foner’s chapter definitely helped add context to the next chapter we read.

The chapter entitled New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network, by Karen Fog Olwig, took a look into the life of a particular Jamaican family that migrated to the United States in the mid-20^th century. The article followed the son of mixed Jamaican residents, who had roots in Portugal and Scotland, and how he eventually created this large family network in New York City. Bill, the aforementioned son of William and Marie, migrated to New York in pursuit of education. Bill was sort of a prodigy; his family had high hopes for him becoming a doctor and sent as much money as they could so that he can pay for his education. Unfortunately, Bill never did become a doctor. Economic demands led him to marry, start a family of his own and take up a managerial position in a large American firm. Yet, this perceived failure to Bill ended up becoming something much greater for the family. Bill’s position provided the perfect entryway for his family to immigrate to the U.S. With jobs in line for needing family members, Bill was able to spur the movement of much of his family to New York. There, a large family network was established, one where family members chipped in to make sure everyone was taken care of. I think the defining thing about this article is how Olwig paints New York City. Though it was a destination for many West Indian immigrants, New York was only the initial step in further migration for many Immigrants. As expressed through Bill’s family, New York helped many immigrants get settled so they can eventually migrate to where they truly wanted to be, whether it was another state in the United States or even an international locale such as London.

Building off of the family network studied in Olwig’s article, Charles Tilly’s article on Trust Networks in Transnational Migration provided a different perspective on how certain migrating peoples made it in America. His article first introduces remittances. Remittances are basically payments of money sent between people. In the context of this article, remittances are the money sent from and to migrants in America. The amount of money being sent between families is actually much larger than I thought, with the 27 billion dollars sent to Latin American and the Caribbean in 2002 making up 1.6% of the regions gross domestic product that year. These remittances aren’t always sent easily and this is where trust networks come in. Trust networks are exactly what they are called- networks based entirely on trust that serve as conduits for money and goods being exchanged between the regions. Remittances were sometimes delivered through these networks, along with other things such as certain local opportunities. These networks worked so well because many of those involved were risking the same things. If there was not enough cooperation within the trust network, no one received any benefits. As noted in the article, this did lead to some things that aren’t so great about trust networks. The rising exclusivity of these trust networks, due to the immense amount of trust and faith members would have to have in each other, lead to a division between people who were able to take part in these networks and those who did not have the opportunity. Some people were confined to small networks that put great constraints on how they could basically live their lives; limited members meant limited opportunities. In all, trust networks and family networks were immensely helpful in getting newly immigrated people on their feet and involved in American society, though certain divisions and detriments did arise.

Mohamed Mohamed

Both the readings from Nancy Foner and Karen Olwig highlight the importance of New York City as a node for immigrants. Karen Olwig tries to discover the transnationalization of the Caribbean immigrants in recent years through a different lens than the modern migration scholars. Olwig conducts her research through the personal history of individual immigrants which then give her an idea of the behavior of the general population. Through her research she shows the attachment many Caribbean have to New York and how their idea distinguishes them from the new batch of immigrants. Olwig explains that New York has changed from a settlement location in hopes of economic and social opportunity, to a center location for family life and a place that held childhood experience. However, New York did not always play the same role for every individual’s life. For example, Bill did not find the career he hoped to achieve but rather ended up moving back to Jamica. On the other hand, Charles was successful in establishing a career and therefore continued to view the city as a place of opportunity.

Furthermore, Olwig was able to discover a form of transnationalism other than economically driven. Immigrants from the West Indies have tried to distinguish themselves from race and class as a form of transnationalism. As immigrants continued to pour into New York many West Indies left so to not be lumped into their group. Kathy, for example, a West Indian who lives in California far from any family members explains that in New York she became racially aware of whom she was. She separated herself from the rest of the immigrant batch so to make it clear that she is more of an American. Kathy refers to New York as place of her childhood and as a place of kin networks. Another great example is Jane who not only left New York but also married into a white family in order to distinguish herself and to escape the racial tension experienced in New York.

The other reading from Charles Tilly gives us a sense of how important immigrant remittances are to the people back home. Remittances are payments that immigrants make to send back to the countries they immigrated from. Tilly explains that these remittances not only funded families but it also assisted businesses and religious institutions as well as politics in that country (the same politics that helps run the country). Tilly also explains that these remittances are large and amount to billions of dollars. Therefore, this support is arguably a significant factor in running these countries. Furthermore, this financial support also proves that these immigrants still hold strong ties with their homelands, which in turn builds trust networks. These trust networks have shown to remain strong and one-way immigrants keep these strong ties is by sending children back. Children are sent back and forth in order that the loyalty of the immigrant remains to the homeland.

I believe that this system will soon fail. As the generations continue on living in the United States the ties between homeland and immigrant will begin to slowly die off. The children growing up in United States will eventually identify as Americans and will no longer demonstrate their loyalty through remittances. This makes me question how the homelands will react to a large decline of remittances. We have seen how important of a role these remittances play in the development, progression, and survival of these countries, so how will they cope without this financial support?

New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network

New York was viewed as a place where immigrants could be turned into new citizens. This migration process would be complete when the immigrants become fully incorporated into the American society. An outcome is that the immigrants will be assimilated partially and will belong to a set of subcultures rather than the American society. “The result is that the present-day Caribbean population of New York is integrated into a transnational sociocultural system that is only partially grounded in American soil.” This means that the Caribbean population has ties to places other than America.

In this reading, there are three family networks of Caribbean origin that had the same ancestors. Over time the family have been scattered throughout the world, from Barbados to the Virgin Islands. New York played a role in the family network because it was a place that had a considerable amount of movement. The family network had roots in Jamaica and it began with William and Marie. William was born in a seaport and Marie was born in a small village. Together they had eight children but their roots wasn’t pure Jamaican. Marie’s paternal grandfather was from Portugal and William’s paternal grandfather moved from Scotland to Jamaica. This created a unique family network that has roots from European and Afro Jamaican descent.

Marie and William valued a good education for their children so they earned money to send their  children to the finest private schools. When Marie and William began struggling financially in Jamaica they sent their children, who traveled as sponsors from other relatives, to America. In America the children pursued a greater education. Bill, one of the children who went to America, was under a lot of pressure from his family because he was going to New York to become a doctor. A doctor position was a high point because it would raise the status of the Jamaican family. The family viewed profession over commerce.

New York was initially a place to go where families could find better educational and economical opportunities. However, it has changed to becoming more family orientated. Doreen, who lives in London, came to New York and found out that she was surrounded with family. Marie also moved back to New York to join her family. New York became the center stage for the family because of all the kin relations associated with it.

At first when the family moved to New York they lived in Harlem. As they improved financially, they moved to a better place in Brooklyn. Brooklyn was described as “pristine and beautiful.” It was also described as being safe due to the fact that police constantly patrolled the area. Everyone who lived in Brooklyn also seemed to have some type of profession. They were either a doctor, lawyer, teacher, etc. In Brooklyn, the family frequently visited one another about three times a week. Aside from the family circle, there was a problem of racism. The children experienced racism in schools because the schools were predominantly white. Kathy, for example, was forced to sit away from everyone else because of her skin color. In addition to the racism that the children had to face, they were also pressured by their families to pursue a respectable career. Kathy career choice was frowned upon because she chose dancing over becoming a doctor.

As the family became comfortable living in New York, the children wanted to leave. Kathy, for example, declined a full scholarship to a local school and decided to go to a school in Massachusetts with only a partial scholarship. This idea of leaving imitates middle class white families where the children want to become independent and make it on their own. Aside from the children, the parents also left. They felt like they didn’t belong in New York because they weren’t black nor white. They were considered foreigners and their accent distinguishes them from everyone else. This type of situation leaves them anonymous because they don’t have a strong American nor Jamaican identity.

West indian Migration to New York

The West Indian population has been exponentially increasing in New York for the past four decades. New York is described as being “Caribbeanized” because West Indians are the largest immigrant group in New York. The reason that there are so many Caribbeans in New York is because of “scarce resources, overpopulation, high unemployment, and underemployment,” in their home countries. Areas around New York and New York City itself, are popular destinations because of the influence of tourists and the import of bananas in the early twentieth century. This established New York as a migration center. West Indians were described as “migrating machines: sending networks that articulated with particular receiving networks in which new migrants could find jobs, housing, and sociability.”

The West Indian population coming in today is completely different from the population coming in years ago. The once British colonies have transformed under American influence. Immigrants now have a view of what American life is about before actually going there. The city’s population of West Indian have also majorly increased so that now new migrants are able to move into places where whites have moved out.

A uniting factor of all West Indian migrants is transnationalism. The West Indians that live in New York constantly send goods back to their families at home. There was this one barrel sent by a Trinidadian domestic worker that contained “three gallons of cooking oil, forty pounds of rice, twenty pounds of detergent, flour, tea, cocoa, toothpaste and other items.” This shows that even though West Indians reside in one place they still have a connection to another place. Transnationalism was also influenced with technology. In today’s world with the invention of airplanes and jets, it is easier, faster, and cheaper to fly back and forth. This only applies to the middle-class immigrants because for the lower class and undocumented, traveling is not easy. The invention of the telephone also helped influence transnationalism. The telephone allowed migrants to learn information regarding their family in another country immediately. This allows them to contribute or participate in any event in their country even if they are somewhere else.

Race and ethnicity is an important factor in the lives of West Indians. West Indians are always thought of as an ethnic group in a larger black population because they are constantly grouped with African Americans. However, after the civil rights movement, American whites became better informed about the situation. Race also influences where West Indians settle when they come to America. West Indians usually find a place where there is a kin connection because it makes them feel more comfortable and safe.

Trust Networks in Transnational Migration

A trust network is a group of people who are connected through similar ties and within these ties a person heavily relies on another, which creates a strong tie. Within these connections the people would have to go through long term interactions such as long distance trade, religion, etc. These connections include, “communication, mutual recognition, and shared participation in some activity, flows of goods or services, transmission of diseases, and other forms of consequential interaction.” These trust networks sometimes get damaged or even worse disappear in long distance migrations. What happens is that in these trust networks the people without other professional connections end up relying on the members of the trust networks. This causes chain-migration where people of the same village end up living together after migration. This puts the long term interactions at risk of failing.

Remittances plays a role in trust networks. Remittances alters the power and organization of a country, changes the lives of the citizens and it helps form a set of transnational trust network. Transnational migration provides a continuous flow of income in two communities. This is beneficial in most circumstances because the money that is transmitted helps fund projects. For example, Tuscanese New Yorkers helped fund two thirds of a new water system for a village. In doing this, they got involved in Ticuani politics. Trust networks are highly dependent on transnationalism. Transnationalism allows communities to function because the government of these communities do not provide enough financially to support certain projects. The two way stream of commerce allows migrants to get involved with their home country’s politics as well as their economy.

“West Indian Migration in New York: An Overview” – Foner

In her introduction, Nancy Foner discusses the reasons for as well as the phenomenon associated with West Indian migration to the United States, specifically New York City. Most people who emigrate from the Caribbean do so due to poor economic conditions, including unemployment and scarce resources. Most of these migrants come to New York City, contributing to a high proportion of West Indians in the city. Many come with the help of migrant networks and maintain many transnational ties while living here. These ties may manifest themselves with the exchange of letters or goods between the immigrants and relatives in the home country as well as through formal associations. Technology (e.g. cheap telephone, email, jet planes) facilitates these ties. Transnational ties even play a role in the politics of the home country and can extend beyond those ties between the United States and Caribbean.

West Indians are usually lumped together with African Americans because of skin color. As a result, they face some prejudice and discrimination and are subject to racial stereotyping. This puts barriers and constraints in the way of West Indians, especially when it comes down to where they live. West Indians are often segregated from whites as are African-Americans and live in communities where they can face minimal racism. There is also a process of racial turnover that occurs.

(1) Black families attempt to branch out from the communities they live in and move into white communities.

(2) As a result of prejudice, white families begin to move out and no new whites move in.

(3) Thus, communities become increasingly black, and the pattern of segregation is reinforced.

In these communities, West Indians are forced to live in areas with inferior schools and higher crime rates. This is a wake-up call for West Indians because they come from societies where being black is not a sign of inferiority. Thus, they have a different notion of race and are not overly concerned with it either. However, they have a strong ethnic identity and try to separate themselves from African Americans.

There is the question of what second-generation West Indians will identify as. They could adopt an ethnic identity, an immigrant identity, or an American identity (as African American). However, most identify as both West Indian and American.

Foner ends with numerous suggestions for future research. These topics include exploring the experiences of new immigrant cohorts, the role that religion plays for these migrants, and the experiences of East Indians from the Caribbean (among other topics).

I have known for a while that migrants exchange letters and other goods with family and friends in their home countries. However, I was surprised by how far some people took this (and how committed they were):

“One barrel sent by a Trinidadian domestic worker in the 1980s contained almost eight hundred dollars worth of goods, including three gallons of cooking oil, forty pounds of rice, twenty pounds of detergent, flour, tea, cocoa, toothpaste, and other items” (7).

Another point I want to touch on is identity awareness by “outsiders.” How do people (such as whites) see West Indians? Are they seen as belonging to the same group as African Americans? Or are they seen as an entirely different group? The author mentions that immigration from the West Indies is “chipping away at notions of a monolithic blackness.” Some West Indians emphasize their ethnic heritage to separate themselves from African Americans. But are they becoming more “visible” in light of this? This would make a nice point of study, similar to the ideas that Foner lays out at the end of the article.

Something I saw that was repeated throughout the article was the concept that context is important. One cannot simply compare two events, phenomenon, or groups without considering the context surrounding them (e.g. location, time period, and existing attitudes). For example, West Indians living here in New York City are distinct from those living in, say, Chicago. Although they may share the same roots, they live in completely different places and may have very distinct experiences. Thus, I can understand why Foner proposes such a study in her conclusion.

Overall, I was pleased with this article. It offered a “refresher” in West Indian migration patterns, the existence of transnational ties, and the race and ethnicity issues that West Indians face.

“New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network” – Olwig

In this chapter, Karen Fog Olwig discusses what New York City means to migrants from the Caribbean. It is a commonly-held stereotype of migration that a poor, neglected group of people migrate to a new country to achieve the American dream. These migrants are incorporated into American society, thus shedding their old identity and making them true Americans. However, this notion does not tell the whole story. There are two opposing theories:

(1) A segmented assimilation occurs, where migrants are incorporated into separate subcultures rather than mainstream American society.

(2) Migration occurs between places and crosscuts several countries. There exists a two-way flow of people, goods, money, and ideas. This represents incorporation into a transnational system.

New York is seen as migrants’ first encounter with American society as well as a point of transition. In a study of a single Jamaican family, members saw New York firstly as a destination to achieve their dreams (or, as the article puts it, “a major center of attraction”). They later saw it as a family center, where the whole family literally lived within walking distance of each other. As the family left New York, they saw it as a formative period in their lives. However, it was a place that was to be left behind because of family problems and because it deteriorated right before their eyes (in terms of racial acceptance and solidarity as well as the influx of low-class West Indian migrants).

I must start off by saying that I fully disagree with the incorporation notion (that is, the notion that states that migration is more of a one-way phenomenon with migrants cutting ties with their home countries and incorporating themselves fully into American society). If it were not for the maintenance of transnational ties, we would not see stores selling Caribbean food or parades celebrating West Indian culture. Indeed, migrants maintain, strengthen, and even celebrate ties to their home countries, while simultaneously incorporating (to a degree) into American society.

As was seen with the Jamaican family, New York City is not the place to end all migration. Instead, it is seen simply as a place, a transition into American living. The members of the Jamaican family eventually left New York and had no regrets in doing so. Some even went back to Jamaica.

I must agree with the author when she says that the incorporation notion is “closely tied to the cultural and societal interests of the migrant destination” (145). Incorporation would lead to a degree of nationalist/patriotic feeling directed toward the United States. This is understandably in the interests of the migrant destination itself (in this case, the United States). More patriotism leads to more loyalty to the country as well as a heightened identification with American values. However, this seems impossible (for the vast majority of migrants) due to various reasons (one of the biggest being racism and discrimination).

I particularly enjoyed the analysis of the Jamaican family. Instead of reciting an impersonal list of facts and statistics, the interviews gave the author’s ideas and the information more of a personal touch. It made the stories more relatable and (for me) allowed the author to get her point across more effectively.

“Trust Networks in Transnational Migration” – Tilly

This article discusses the role that trust networks play in transnational ties, especially in the sending and receiving of remittances. The author defines trust as an attitude or relationship that “consists of placing valued outcomes at risk to others’ malfeasance, mistakes, or failures” (7). Trust networks have a number of characteristics in common:

(1) There are a number of people who are connected via similar ties.

(2) The tie itself gives a person claims on the attention or aid of another.

(3) Members of the network are collectively carrying out long-term enterprises.

These transnational networks play a huge role in the lives of migrants. Members may seek out information and advice from these networks and/or rely on members to fulfill certain responsibilities.

According to the article, remittances made up about 1.6% of Latin America and the Caribbean’s gross domestic product. Remittances from hometown associations play a role in altering the organization of power in the hometown itself, as was seen in the case of Ticuani. Remittances also maintained the trust networks that were present and reinforced the remitter’s power and control over the money. These also upheld the remitter’s obligations, as those who did not follow through on these obligations were often criticized and shunned.

However, the author mentions that the presence of trust networks may limit the opportunities of migrants. Members may find themselves confined in niches that are based in these trust networks. Although these networks provide a sense of security and solidarity, they may limit the opportunities and overall futures of migrants.

The author starts off with a statement that was similar to one made in the last article (by Olwig):

“I do mean, however, to challenge popular images of immigrants as one-way travelers, desperate for work or welfare in a richer country, who cut home ties as soon as possible in order to take advantage of their own country” (4).

Here, as in the last article, the author is criticizing the incorporation notion of migration. This article, in particular, illustrates how migrants maintain connections to their home countries through the sending and receiving of remittances. I believe that the author actually did a good job in opposing the notion of incorporation and emphasizing the transnational ties that are actually present.

Although I like the author’s definition of trust, I would like to provide my own definition in order to supplement the one given in the article. To me, trust is an attitude toward a relationship where a party relies on another to fulfill their responsibilities and ensure that the relationship progresses smoothly. I believe that the emphasis should not be placed on the inherent risk in such activities but rather on the feeling of reliance that is present between both parties. In the case of remittances, one party relies on another to send a remittance (semi-)regularly in whatever way, shape, or form possible. By sending these remittances, the relationship between both parties is maintained and progresses smoothly, and the trust between the two parties is also maintained and may even grow.

“West indian Migration to New York”

The last four decades have engendered the largest west indian migration to New York. In numbers, about half a million west indians have emigrated to New York since 1965. Furthermore, the West Indian population is in fact the largest immigrant group in New York State. This massive West Indian population even exceeds that of actual caribbean islands. However, as overwhelming in numbers as they are, West Indians are still identified as black and thus they played a role in the civil rights movement in the United States. As we learned too, West Indians not only played roles in their new land, but also maintained transnational ties.

The reasons behind West Indian immigration are abundant. In many Caribbean Islands, there are “scarce resources, overpopulation, high unemployment, and underemployment.” Thus, West Indians, like any other people would, looked abroad for a better economic life. West Indians who could traveled abroad to many countries, but conclusively, the main place of attraction was New York City. By 1998, 8% of New York city’s massive population was West Indian, or about 600,000 West Indians. The reasons behind New York’s success as a West Indian attraction stretch back to when steamships brought goods, specifically fruit, from Caribbean Islands. Along with the fruit came West Indians who settled in the city, and as we have learned, began setting up immigrant networks that brought family and friends over from the home island. Furthermore, New York offered economic opportunity and was itself an attraction for all immigrants. Although, New York wasn’t all that perfect, with the underlying racism and prejudice that existed.

West Indians immigrants continue coming to New York City today. However, these West Indians are not coming from what were British Colonies. Rather, they are coming from more Americanized and modern places. Also, they are no longer arriving in the same New York City locations. Previously, West Indians arrived in the black capital of America: Harlem. Now however, West Indians are settled in Brooklyn, specifically in the areas of Flatbush and Crown Heights.

After the Civil Rights movement, West Indians migrating to New York had access to better jobs and education. One would think that these immigrants would take advantage of that and use it to be a part of the political spectrum. Rather, research has shown that these West Indians died down their Caribbean-ness and settled down as part of the black population. Today however, things are different as West Indian immigrants embrace their culture and background. They also use that culture in the political arena to impact both their districts in New York and the elections in their home island.

The political ties New York West Indians have with their homeland falls under the transnational category. Transnational ties existed at the moment West Indians landed foot in their new land. These ties included sending back goods, money, and even children for education or cultural experience. Today, these ties continue, but what’s more is that they are much easier to achieve due the transporting and communication technologies that exist.  However, just because they exist, doesn’t mean everyone has access to them. There are are still poor and undocumented immigrants that cannot participate in visiting or sending goods to the homeland. However, phoning relatives and friends in other countries in nearly widespread to every West Indian immigrant as the medium is cheap and easily accessible. Furthermore, political associations with Caribbean has today been facilitated through transportation and communication technologies. Political bases in New York can keep in contact with the headquarters in the Caribbean islands. Politicians can even take a short trip by plane to New York City to attend fundraisers or events for their own political party. Let us not forget that the immigrants living in New York still hold a Caribbean nationality and can participate in elections.

Caribbean networks in New York stretch beyond political associations however, with unofficial institutions founded in New York that raise money and support for projects in the Caribbean home island. There are also family networks which we learned about in class that help bring over family members from the Caribbean islands as the settled immigrants prepare employment and shelter.

Of Course, there is always some problems with immigrants coming to a country. With West Indians, that problem is racism. After the civil rights movements, there was less racism against blacks. However, racism was still existent. First and foremost, West Indians found themselves as being grouped in with African Americans, although the two groups were quite distinct. Furthermore, West Indians found that whites continued to discriminate against them through small examples. For instance, young black males found that women would clutch ther handbags when walking by. Furthermore, West Indians experience discrimination in real estate. Many times, West Indians are driven into black neighborhoods by real estate owners. Thus, they remain segregated from whites. Also, these neighborhoods are much worse off than white neighborhoods. By worse, the book refers to less upkeep, schools, and local economies. Research has found that West Indians coming to America have found themselves being aware of race for the first time. This is because the society groups them as “black,” while in their homelands, no such labeling was present. This angers many Caribbean islanders and is a large factor of the racism existing in New York City. This labeling leads to West Indians trying to distance themselves from blacks by holding onto their Caribbean culture and ethnicity.

Furthermore, this association with African Americans has led to constant comparisons between the two groups’ economic successes. Such comparisons only bear down stress on the identity of many West Indians. Second generation West Indianers are seen to be more linked to their Caribbean background as to maintain a sense of uniqueness in a place where they are constantly mislabeled. However, researchers believe that this identity crisis will soon be resolved. This is due to the belief that as West Indians continue coming into New York City,  they will be gaining more prominence and become more “visible” in society.

“New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network”

New York City was the place to be for West Indian immigrants in the 1960’s migrations. This was because New York offered many chances for employment and social mobility, but also because there was already a settled west Indian neighborhood that consisted of families who attracted their relatives. The migration process to New York was completed when immigrants were completely incorporated into the American Society. One result of this of process is that immigrants will assimilate to the foreign society, but only partially. This is because the immigrants continue to hold on to their past culture and form a transnational identity. As the article states, “the present-day Caribbean population of New York is integrated into a transnational sociocultural system that is only partially grounded in American soil.”

In this reading, three family networks are analyzed. These networks are composed of individuals of Caribbean origin that had the same ancestors. Through the generations,  the family became scattered throughout the world. For example, some family members lived in the Barbados while others in the Virgin Islands. New York played a role in this family network because it was a point of movement throughout the family. This family network had roots in Jamaica. The parents, William and Marie, were born in a seaport and was  a small village, respectively. Together they had eight children. The parent’s roots however, weren’t completely of Jamaican descent. Marie’s paternal grandfather was from Portugal and William’s paternal grandfather moved from Scotland to Jamaica. This created a unique family network that had roots in European and Caribbean.

Marie and William valued a good education. Thus, they worked hard to earn money so that they could send their children to private schools. When Marie and William began struggling financially in Jamaica, they sent their children. The children traveled under the sponsorship of other relatives and were sent to America. In America, the children pursued a greater education than the one they could find back in Jamaica. Bill, one of the children , was under a great deal of pressure from his family because he was going to New York to become a doctor. A doctor position was a prominent position that was seen as a high point because it would raise the status of the Jamaican family. Marie and William had viewed profession over commerce, which is understandable because a profession required a strong education that was rare to find in Jamaica.

New York was initially a place to go where families could find better educational and economical opportunities. However, it has changed to becoming more family orientated. In New York, many West Indian formed strong neighborhoods, specifically in Brooklyn where the whites slowly moved out to allow blacks to move into neighborhoods like Flatbush and Crown Heights. In this area’s, Caribbean communities bustled. Some of the children lived in New York, for example Marie. Meanwhile others, moved between both Jamaica and New York like Kathy. No matter however, in New York, the family surrounded itself with close relatives and friends whom were from the same niche back in Jamaica.

After some time, many of the younger generations began moving out of New York due to either family tragedy or in pursuit of a different education. Only a few remained in New York, for example Doreen. Meanwhile, Bill returned to Jamaica while his mother visited her children in many different parts of the world. This microstudy of a Jamaican family highlights the extensive family network that could be formed by West Indians. Such networks are usually overlooked by historians and thus the author is trying to highlight the se unknown trends of Caribbean migration.

“Trust Networks in Transnational Migrations”

75% of all remittences in Latin America and the Caribbean come from America. These numbers arise from the vast number of recent immigrants who send remittences to family back home. These remittences are valued to be worth billions and literally run some country’s economies. This underlies that migration isn’t a one way ticket, and that immigrants seek to maintain ties with their homes, many times through economic means. These transnational economic ties are founded of course, upon trust.  The economic stream of funds must hold trust in all participants to send remittences and that is the focus of this paper. These trust networks do much more than thinks. The remittences sent home not only fund family life, but businesses, child rearing, and religious and political commitment. Furthermore, these trust networks hold a certain risk in that those relying on remittences must believe that their oversees relatives will be able to send funds so that they can survive. Thus, these networks consist of strong ties as one group places its survival on the hard work of another. But, there is a distinction in one group’s survival, because it isn’t literal survival but rather one group is placing its children’s future or business in the hands of another. Trust networks have of course existed over thousands of years. But these were usually in the forms of institutions like churches. Never before have trust networks existed over such a number a of dispersed groups. However, both yield the same successful results.

The remittences gained from these trust networks have a great impact on their destination. An example was used of a small Mexican village (Ticuani) that relies on the constant flow of immigrants and remittences to maintain its growth, progression, and survival. Ticuanese New Yorkers all fulfill their immigrant obligations “by means of financial contributions
channeled to Mexico through a powerful New York-based committee of
emigrants.” These remittences were obliged by everyone, as institutions were formed to maintain those who did not pay in the U.S. did not receive the benefits in Ticuani. The second generation Ticuanese in New York however did not maintain as a strong a tie with their home town village, as expected. However, they still continued the flow of remittences. In the long run, there is speculation that such systems where one group in another country will directly fund their hometown will continue to exist, expand and multiply.

Another example was presented with Salvadorians in New York and El Salvador. On both sides of the immigrant spectrum, ties were maintained and remittences sent. Children were also moved between both places to maintain both cultures. Thus, Salvadorians rely on trust networks with immigrant friends and relatives. A questioner done on spanish immigrants further propelled the idea of trust networks when almost all participants claimed to prioritize sending remittences back home to support their families.

Thus, trust networks are both generous and obligatory. People who failed to send remittence were shunned and shamed by family and friends back home. Furthermore, shunned members of the networks lost the insurance a trust network holds in helping every member in need. Thus, trust networks are more than an obligation, but a necessity. This specifically applies to children who are constantly sent by their parents to America where they rely on members of a trust network to fund their stay and education, as given by the example of the Mendoza’s in San Diego.

Brown Girl, Brownstones – Books 3 & 4

In Book 3, Silla becomes fixated on selling Deighton’s land and vows to do so. Although she plans to sell the land behind Deighton’s back, Silla’s decision seems somewhat justified. Many of the Bajans around her are buying houses, which is frustrating because Silla is working grueling hours to raise the money for a house. At the same time, Deighton is unmotivated and isn’t contributing nearly as much as Silla. He is holding on to the fantasy of a luxurious home in Barbados, while Silla is struggling to lay roots for the family in New York.

However, when it is finally revealed to Deighton that Silla has sold the land, she appears delighted to have taken revenge on Deighton and laughs maniacally. It seems as though she sold the land more for the vengeful satisfaction, rather than for the betterment of her family.

Deighton gets revenge on Silla by spending the entire $900 on gifts for his family and himself. Deighton’s actions were just as despicable and Silla’s. This money could have bought a house for his family. This was a common goal amongst the entire community. To buy a house was to establish oneself and lay roots in America. This is what Silla was exhausting herself for. Deighton had the money, but spent it all to spite Silla. Whether or not Silla deserved it, I sympathized with her as she repeatedly smashed the golden trumpet into the ground.

Towards the very end of the novel, Selina’s interaction with Margaret’s mother influences her decision to travel to Barbados. In dance, Selina escaped the label of race and was confident in herself. However, when she visits the house, Margaret’s mother subtly degrades Selina’s confidence to let Selina know that she did not belong. Margaret’s mother’s appearance is similar to that of a ghost, drawing a parallel between her and the ghosts that young Selina sensed in the brownstone. Once more Selina’s identity is challenged, and she realizes that she cannot escape the inherent Bajan part of her. Selina decides that she must travel to Barbados and discover her identity.

From Immigrant to Transmigrant: Theorizing Transnational Migration

A transmigrant is an immigrant who becomes politically, economically, and socially interactive within their residing country, yet still maintains strong ties to their homeland. The significance of the transmigrant lies in understanding how these simultaneous ties influence their motivations and actions; also, in how this contributes to increasing globalization, and the changing significance of national borders.

It is interesting to consider that all discussion on immigration in the U.S. stems from the idea of an American nationality. Immigrants are expected to become fully rooted in the U.S., but can still maintain culture, customs, beliefs. However, they are not supposed to retain loyalties to their homelands. These ideas have been considered since the inception of the United States and are still relevant as the number of immigrants maintaining ties with their homelands is increasing.

This increase in transnationalism is partially influenced by advances in technology. The ease of transportation and the invention of the internet are arguably the most major contributors. With webcam communication, immigrants can easily make face-to-face contact with families back home. Maintaining ties with the homeland has become significantly easier.

Returning back to American nationality. Hegemonic forces in the U.S. have focused their efforts on undocumented immigrants. Not only do they seek to reduce the flow of immigration, but separating this group helps identify who is not loyal to the U.S. Even many documented immigrants are against the undocumented. It helps the documented establish that they have put in a lot of work and belong to the U.S. This also stems from the idea of the U.S. as a nation-state. Transmigrants have loyalties to multiple nation-states. They also tend to try and recreate their politics and cultures in their residing countries.

It is interesting to observe what effect transnationalism will have in the coming years. As the significance of borders changes, the direct connection between nation-states and territory decreases, and globalization increases, we may continue to explore a national identity.

The ending of this book left me with a myriad of conflicting emotions towards the members of the Boyce family. Selina seems to have reached a crossroads by the conclusion of the book. She realized that she would never be accepted by the white families whom she wished desperately to belong and this crushing realization has led her to connect with the land where her parents come from. I’d imagine this is a pivotal moment for many children of immigrants, there always comes a time when the curiosity regarding where you come from reaches a head. It’s something that I feel is very important, there’s a certain significance to understanding where your family came from. I hang on this point because I very recently visited the small village where my mother’s side of the family lived for hundreds and hundreds of years. Walking around talking with people who all speak the same marginalized dialect of Italian was a surreal experience the likes of which I’ll never forget. I firmly believe it was an integral step to reconciling the two parts of myself, the part of the American child and the part of the son of immigrants.

I’ve digressed too far, bringing this blog post back to the book the ending left me feeling very sorry for the character of Deighton. I can’t imagine the horror of having your dream torn away from you, also the whole losing an arm thing. The land he inherited was his raison d’etre so to speak. Given his personality it’s unlikely he would’ve done anything with the land but agency over it was his and his alone. Yes, Deighton’s actions are incredibly childish but I walked away from the book feeling empathy towards the character. Silla, on the other hand, has earned no love from me. She turned her back on her family to realize her materialistic dreams. It’s obvious that getting her brownstones didn’t make her happy, she destroyed her family to obtain them.

Regarding the idea of transnationalism I think it’s an incredibly interesting concept. Paralleling the current trend of globalization people are forming ties to countries besides the one of their birth. Only through advances in the fields of transportation and communication has this become possible. These advances have allowed people to maintain ties to their homeland while simultaneously putting down roots abroad. This spread of the Caribbean diaspora can be traced back to the turbulent domestic conditions in the post-colonial West Indies, predicated by the dissolution of the imperial system of government set up by the British. Now, obviously people are still emigrating from these areas to ones that offer a greater possibility of economic advancement but now their decision to emigrate doesn’t mean cutting themselves off from their homeland for extended periods of time. I couldn’t imagine a time when I wouldn’t be able to keep in contact with my family but that was the harsh realities ex-pats had to deal with.

It comes as no surprise that businesses have been trying to capitalize on the growing amount of remittences being sent back to these transmigrants home countries. Where there’s a growing market you can be sure that companies will try to take advantage of it. As jaded as I am personally towards big corporations the role they play allow people to send direly needed money back to their families, so some good is coming out of this.

It goes without saying that this trend will continue as people keep migrating. Now, there’s no need to give up your cultural identity even when thousands of miles away. Perhaps if my family had emigrated closer to the present day we would have a much stronger connection with the family who still lives in Italy. Probably not though, they still don’t have internet there.

The last two books of “Brown Girl, Brownstones” brought a great deal of adventure and unexpected plot twists to the book. It also helped to culminate the book into a great central theme regarding every man’s search for identity, which often must occur outside of the context of things that are familiar.

The most shocking part of the last half of the book was Marshall’s treatment of Deighton. Reading about the unfortunate loss of his arm greatly impacted me as this event was preceded by the complete erasure of his brilliant personality due to Silla’s dishonest sale of his land in Barbados. It was hard to read of the complete loss of hope that Deighton underwent and, for this reason, I believe that Marshall did a fabulous job of using Deighton to illustrate the contrasting highs and lows that a single person can experience in as an immigrant. Though the book does not specify the exact details of Deighton’s passing, it can be debated that his loss of all hope drove him to commit suicide.

Though it is hard to narrow the extremely broad scope of the second half of “Brown Girl, Brownstones” to a single most pivotal moment, it is possible to compile the moments in the last two books into the central most theme of the book. The theme is first hinted when we see Selina begin to develop into a woman by gaining the physical features associated with womanhood. Though Selina can be considered a “late bloomer” in one sense, her great maturity of thought far outweighs the physical maturity of all the women around her. For example, though Beryl became physically mature at an early age, her mental immaturity is shown when she is unable to make independent decisions as an adult. Selina tells us that having breasts does not make one mature.

Though I will not discuss each scenario in its entirety, the book gives many other situations in which the central theme is illustrated. From Silla, we learn that having a house does not bring one into a place of belonging. From the wedding scene, we learn that having flashy a nuptial does not make a person happily married. From the Bajan community in Brooklyn, we learn that having a community association does not make a community truly invested in the well being of each of its members. The overarching theme exemplified in each of these instances is that the pursuit of material success without a focus on internal wholeness brings misery and confusion.

In the other reading for this week- “From Immigrant to Transmigrant: Theorizing Transnational Migration”- Nina Glick Schiller, et al. use historical evidence and evaluations of current social climates to assert that today’s immigrant is not a lonely vagabond with no hope or connection in the world. They eloquently show how immigration is becoming a transnational process in which the migrant has strong connections to their homeland and their new country through familiar and financial ties.

For me, the most impactful point made in this paper was the discussion of the push and pull factors that cause immigrants to leaves their homelands and maintain ties to it. The biggest “push” on immigrants in the 1950s and 60s who were fleeing from newly decolonized nations was the horrendous political and economic conditions that colonizing nations left behind when they liberated a society. The unfortunate truth about this issue is that newly decolonized nations had no way of knowing how to establish or support a new governmental system. This sort of instability made it possible for IMFs to enter these developing countries, put them in debt, and then use them as tax-soft markets for trade. I did not know of this history until I read this paper and, for me, it simply provided another example of how governing powers do not give of their resources unless it will benefit them in a very big way.

The two pull factors that encourage immigrants to maintain ties with their homeland and, thereby, become transnational migrants, were lack of equality in new countries and a strong sense of nationalism. I think that these two factors are born from the simple fact that human nature tends to encourage us to find a place to belong. The pursuit of a better life in a new country is a grueling undertaking and without strong support from one’s family, it would probably be too heartbreaking to complete.

Adrian Horczak

People of New York

Professor Lutton

February 28, 2015

Brown Girl Brownstones

The second part of Marshall’s novel Brown Girl, Brownstones describes Selina’s entrance into the adult world and Deighton’s controversial relationship with his family and his prospects. In addition, the novel continues the theme of people feeling close ties with race, while Selina, the protagonist, does not want to be categorized with her race.

Selina demonstrates how she is becoming a grown-up by taking action to possibly change the outcome of things. Even when her mother threatened to kill her if she told anyone about her plan to sell Deighton’s land, she told Deighton and others about it. Then she went to Silla’s job to let her know she did that hoping she does not proceed with her plan. Nonetheless, Silla still sold Deighton’s land in Bimshire. However, when he picked up the money from Silla’s selling the land, he spent it all on gifts for his family rather than on a down payment for a new house in New York. Therefore, Silla had to take out a loan to buy a house. The Bajan community looked down upon Deighton, while praising her.

When Selina visits her new white friend, Margaret, she meets her mother, who seems quite interested in her race. Margaret to her dismay, compares Selina to other people in her race, but not people in general. The irony of this is that she wished to live among white Americans in the future. Eventually, this fate does not occur because she goes to Barbados to examine what her culture really is. Like Margaret’s mother, she is interested in her ethnicity, and decides she should learn more thoroughly since people associate her so much with it.

From Immigrant to Transmigrant: Theorizing Transnational Migration explains how people immigrate to the United States of America and keep close ties to their countries of origin. These kinds of people, known as transmigrants, go back and forth between the two and base their economic achievements on the business of bringing their cultural traditions and material to the U.S. Furthermore, transmigrants often sent money that they made from working in the U.S. back to their families in their country of origin, especially women. From bases in the United States, transmigrants built strong national movements not only within the country, but abroad as well. In addition, they feel as though they have a dual nationality of both American and the country they immigrated from because they are active in both places. However, the important work transmigrants are doing in this country is despised by politicians and the media because the money transmigrants make takes away profit from the citizens of this nation. Even the immigrants who reside her legally, are starting to believe there should be more policing of undocumented transmigrants.

Ivy Wilson and Ayo Coly’s “Black is the Color of the Cosmos” describes the diaspora of African people in the Caribbean. Since the continent of Africa was colonized, people from there often communicate with one another in European languages. They split up into Dutch, English, and Spanish territories and are made strangers when they are not. Europeans took over much of the world and made people who live in other places feel like strangers when they are at home.

I believe the Bajan community was right to look down upon Deighton because he wasted the large sum of money on gifts instead of buying land in New York. Even though, Silla should not have sold Deighton’s land without his permission, Deighton should have at least put the money to good use. He went from having something, to having the potential to buy something, to having nothing, but presents that would only lose value overtime. In other words, he made a bad situation worse.

Coming from a family of immigrants, I believe that transmigrants should not be sent away from the United States since it serves such an important place for them. However, any participating in any big business or unlawful activity should be deported because they take advantage of the country’s generosity.

Brown girl, Brownstones reminds me of a Caribbean version of A Tree Grows in Brooklyn, in a later time period that shows turning points in American society as well as in an girl’s life. It has a lot of similar themes, like being separated into books, hard working mother, care free father, book worm protagonist who loves her father and is sexually/ mentally maturing. If the setting of this book was not in the 1950’s, the outcome of Selina’s life would have changed drastically. After World War II, America was slowly reconfiguring blacks in society- where before there was a racial wall, slow bits of liberalism and progressivism allowed for more social climbing, although racism was still prevalent and still restricted equality. This type of situation occurs when Clive participates in the Bohemia movement and he discusses a white friend who questions him about what being black is white, which distances and separates them as people. Selina encounters this belittling when she visits her white friend’s house and her friend’s mother distinguishes her as  a good exception within the overall “poor and uneducated black” community. Through this encounter, Selina understands her mother’s “dog eat dog” attitude that she previously hated. Still, Silla had been reduced to an obsessive, power driven, crazed woman. I see how her husband’s lack of reasonability and her son’s death can change a person, but she seemed to refuse her family and, at some point, she does not act to the best interest of her family. She provided for her family, but they all seemed so separated, especially after Deighton’s death. Deighton, before his death, basically disowned his family because his wife and his community disowned him first. It is chilling to see a family disintegrate like that, especially when it leads to the father committing suicide. At least he spent the money on his family and not on other vices- he came back with gifts. The family could have possibly returned some of the items- Deighton’s deed was not entirely unforgivable, and he did find an actual job afterwards. I don’t know- I guess I am not sure how everything escalated so horribly. I get caught up in the characters that I forget to find overarching themes. I do appreciate some of the feminist aspects, like the dichotomy between domesticate life and the emerging career life. The power of women in the community through the breakfast scene  and the good/bad of the typical suburban wife lifestyle verses breaking new grounds as an individual. At the very end of the book, I thought it was interesting that the author shows the transition of the neighborhoods from brownstones to projects, which I believe is also a reflection of the time period when more public works projects were in place.

Transmigration refers to immigrants who bridge the boundaries between countries, mostly Caribbean populations and Filipinos. They bridge boundaries by living and financing their life in these global capitals, like the US, while buying land and participating in politics in their home countries. Some live split lives between continents, sending their children to school in their home country or just having divided family in general. I do not find this theory shocking, anyone living in NYC knows people who live like this or live like this themselves. I did not know that political ramifications of this. I did not know it was possible to have a deterritorialized nation state- to export people, build communities in other countries, and in stating to act as a foreign power in another land. I do not think popularizing this idea would help immigration policies like the article says, but rather increase xenophobia. The common forced integration theory seems like immigrates are more dedicated to adopted state, not working for a separate one. I like the tidbit about immigrant establishing immigrant business, or business that serve the needs of a specific ethnic populations because that is the traditional economic side of globalization and the one that brings the good food into city.

The Black Diaspora paper has very difficult to understand terminology, but basically it is about how identify and define the black diaspora. The general ‘Black’ diaspora like hip hop culture, the African diaspora, and separating them from traditional colonial means.

In the novel Brown Girl, Brownstones, written by Paule Marshall, Books 3 to 5 shows the many themes that interwove the community into one unit. At the onset of WWII, Selina starts to get her period. These are the first signs of Selina’s development of her physical maturity. She starts to feel grown up and that she could handle adult conversations. However, societal pressures influence Selina into believing that she needs curves on her body to seem like a mature female. Every morning for a month, Selina would feel her chest to see if her breasts were developing. In addition to this daily routine that she starts, she also feels immature compared to her best friend Beryl and her sister Ina. Beryl and Ina are portrayed as curvaceous girls with very feminine attributes. These scenes show the inner struggles that every girl faces as they develop at one part of their lives.

One of the most influential scenes in the literary piece is the Breakfast Scene that occurs just after the onset of World War II. Three working mothers, Silla, Florrie Trotman, and Iris Hurley, are sitting in Silla’s kitchen talking about politics, weddings, owning houses, and other gossip. This scene hints at many ongoing themes that continue to develop as the book goes on. Silla blames the politicians personally for starting the war and then sending their sons in the draft. She says this with the same passion as if her son were being sent to the draft even though her son is dead. This scene shows the first hints of Silla still mourning for the death of her son. As the scene goes on, Florrie and Iris talk about all the families in the Barbadian community of Brooklyn who are buying houses and stabilizing their future in the United States of America. Silla becomes enraged that Deighton does not want to sell his land for the money to pay as the down payment for the house. She becomes and obsessed and determined to do anything in her capability to sell his land.

Another very symbolic scene is the wedding of ‘Gatha’s daughter. In this scene, one thing to note is that the whole Barbadian community attends this wedding, showing how intricately the Barbadian society was interconnected. Everyone knew each other at the wedding and the wedding was very elaborate and ornate. The bride’s mother, “Gatha, was beautifully dressed and she made a great entry. However, from Selina’s description of the wedding, the wedding was placed in honor for the mother more so than for the bride and the groom. The bride had wanted to marry a Southern black guy. However, ‘Gatha forced her daughter to marry another Barbadian and she had three houses already. She was a very successful and honorable lady in the Barbadian community and this wedding was her chance to show off to the community at the bride’s expense.

Racism is a prevailing theme throughout the book. There are many instances that highlight the scenarios that Caribbean black immigrants faced in the society. The first instance was when Deighton was studying to get a job as an accountant. He was studying so that he could get a high wage job just like his white counterparts. Although many people warned him that he wouldn’t get the job because of his skin color, he continued to study. However, when he tried to apply for the job, he was denied the job because he was seen as a lower class man due to his skin color. This scene showed just how hard it was for colored immigrants to change and move up the social ladder in society. Another instance of racism in the book is the scene when Selina goes to her friend’s house. Selina just participated in a dance show where she was the solo dancer in a dance titled “From Birth to Death”. Her, Rachel, and Margaret all go to Margaret’s house to celebrate Selina’s successful dance. After Selina and the other girls have some drinks and start dancing in Margaret’s room, Margaret’s mother calls to see Selina. Margaret’s mother is a white woman who starts questioning Selina about her and her parents’ whereabouts. When she finds out that Selina is Barbadian, she goes on to torment Selina by saying racist things, such as that Barbadians serve as the best maids, are better than the Southern blacks, have amusing West Indian accents, and are helpless about their skin color. This intense scene goes on to scar Selina for the rest of her life. Selina explains later on in the book that from that day onwards, every time she looked into another white person’s eyes, she would be forced to remember the scene with Margaret’s mother.

Societal establishments are also a main prevalent theme throughout the book. The Barbadian Association and numerous churches make their influence on Selina’s family and the community. The Barbadian Association is this tight knit community of all the Barbadian immigrants who pool their resources to further their causes. This Association had plans of establishing their own bank system, providing scholarships to Barbadian students who are trying to become professionals, and by providing housing agreements in local areas. This Association was tightly interwoven and had a lot of influence; they had the ability to take away the houses that people owned if they went against the Association. Churches largely influence Deighton and Ina. Ina joins that St. Matthew’s Episcopal Church and spends a large part of her day doing church activities. Deighton, as an extreme case, becomes completely enamored by the Peace Movement Church and ends up losing his individual personality in the process. He decides on the urging of Father Peace to leave Selina and his family behind to live with the Father Peace in his restaurant, where he now works as a cashier. All these Associations and establishments showed just how strongly they kept the community tied to one another. The communities became immensely dependent on these establishments to further their personal causes in the world of politics and economics.

In the article “From Immigrant to Transmigrant: Theorizing Transnational Migration” were written by Nina Schiller, Linda Basch, and Cristina Blanc. The article had an interesting take on the term transmigration, explaining that many people view it in a negative connotation. To many native people, the term exemplifies the unnecessary effort that immigrants have to make to assimilate into a new society. However, the article argues this by saying that people should start using the term transmigrant. Many of these immigrants continue to keep their connections with their native countries. They keep in touch with their family members there and they receive support from their families. When times get hard in the foreign countries, this is the moment when ties across nations become their strongest. The immigrants keep their cultural identity with their native country so that they have a feeling of belongingness. With Capitalism, certain cities in the foreign countries start to weaken and disintegrate. This is when the immigrants use their family ties in the native countries to do them favors and gain support. The native countries also start to prosper and develop from these transmigrants. They immigrants would earn money and then invest them in family businesses. These immigrants should not be considered as uprooted and displaced because they continue to have their emotional and family connections to their native countries while they learn to understand the foreign country in which they live in, similar to the Greek Diaspora.

This week we finished reading Brown Girl, Brownstones by Paule Marshall. Reading this book has been very helpful and insightful for me. Seeing the individual lives and perceptions that are repeatedly brought up in the book really help to give an image of the Harlem immigrant experience on the micro scale.

A big scene is the breakfast scene in book three. Around this point World War II is starting and the women are speaking about this. They are concerned that the young men will be taken away. Soon the conversation transitions away to regular gossip. They speak about who is buying houses and who is getting married. As we discussed in class, this is a feminist novel. It shows how important the women’s’ gossip is to the community, which is the often trivialized. These women, often lead the households by giving the family direction, and thus their gossip and methods of spreading information are very important.

Some more important social analysis can be done in regard to ‘Gatha’s daughter’s wedding scene and the treatment of weddings in the novel. As one reads, one realizes that the wedding isn’t really for the bride. The festivities go on as the sits and remains uninvolved. This shows how weddings are more for social status then love. She originally wanted to marry one man but since he was Southern black and not Caribbean, her family pressured her to marry someone else. This makes evident the racial and ethnic prejudices that existed within black communities. But the main reason that the wedding was held and made so luxurious was to display wealth. They were showing everyone else in the community how well everything was turning out for them. The community then tends to bring them down and remind them of where they came from.

There is also big factor of race. The scene with Selina in Margaret’s house is pivotal in the story and to Selina’s life. For much of her childhood, she wanted to grow up and live with a family. But once in Margaret’s house, she confronts the reality of racism. Margaret’s mother reminds Selina of who she is and where she comes from in a way that tries to appear kind but is extremely aggressive in a passive way. She says that Selina is good for her race and can’t help the color of her skin. It makes Selina extremely uncomfortable and she tries to leave but the woman does not let her. This as very significant to Selina, as it served as a reality check. In the novel it is stated that after this moment Selina cannot look at a white person without thinking about that moment. This moment changes her and in the end influences her to go to Barbados to see it for herself.

This week we also read From Immigrant To Transmigrant: Theorizing Transnational Migration by Nina Glick Schiller, Linda Basch and Cristina Szanton Blanc. This article discussed the idea of the transmigrant. These people are defined as follows “”Transmigrants are immigrants whose daily lives depend on multiple and constant interconnections across international borders and whose public identities are configured in relationship to more than one nation-state.” The transnational networks and relations are extremely important to the movement and settling of these people. The first reason for the transational immigration phenomenon is the drastic change in capital and political and economic situations. The second is racism in both the U.S. and Europe, which leaves the immigrants in instable economic positions. And the third reason is because different loyalties to nation states emerge, wherever the networks exist.

I found it interesting that the Greek immigrant example was used as a central concept for understanding the situation. The article states “the current efforts of both immigrants and states with dispersed populations to construct a deterritorialized nation-state that encompasses a diasporic population within its domain can be understood through examining the trajectory of Greek migration.” Even when the Greek population disperses they continue to build their nation and identity wherever they arrive. A collective world wide identify for Greeks was created which included both Greeks in Greece and abroad.

This recent wave of migrants broke with the trend of settling in a country and abandoning their roots in order to assimilate. The transmigrants do what is necessary and move in necessary ways in order for them to survive as an individual or family unit. This is explained in the line: “By stretching, reconfiguring, and activating these networks across national boundaries, families are able to maximize the utilization of labor and resources in multiple settings and survive within situations of economic uncertainty and subordination.” It is pointed out how big of a role these transnational migrants play a role in different societies. But despite of this they are often cast in a very negative light and are blame for internal deterioration of nation states.

Books 3 and 4 of Black Girl, Brownstones, written by Paule Marshall and “From Immigrant to Transmigrant,” written by Linda Basch et al were both very interesting reads. I personally loved reading Marshall’s novel because it explained the feelings, emotions, and hardships many Caribbean immigrants faced through the eyes of a second-generation girl. Although this specific story did not take place, many similar stories must have happened, which is why Marshall felt compelled to write a story with this plot. Basch et al’s work also caught my attention because it showed me how powerful the establishment of networks between immigrants and their homeland can be. In my experience, my parents have maintained a connection with their homeland by keeping in touch with relatives, owning land in Ecuador and passing on their Catholic faith to their children. I have personally observed how important and supportive these groups and associations can be to an immigrant who is trying to adjust to a foreign nation. I also found important how the writers of this article kept mentioning how the notion of an immigrant has changed over time. It is true. I have heard from people who immigrated in the early to mid 1900s and their experience has been more difficult than the experience that my family has gone through. I guess that as time has passed, people have become a bit more tolerant or at least acknowledge that the United States has been and continues to be a very culturally diverse nation.

In the last two hundred pages of Marshall’s feminist novel, we observe Selina’s transition from an innocent, little girl to a young woman. The Breakfast scene that takes place right at the beginning of the third book involving Selina, Silla, Florrie and Iris is important because it shows us that gossip has a social function. Silla seems to use gossip about other people’s lives to make sure that they are not progressing too much and leaving her behind. At the end of the conversation she has with her friends, Silla swears that she will sell Deighton’s land without him knowing. It is almost as if she put a curse on him. Seeing the seething rage behind those words, Selina worries about what the mother might to do and tells several people about it including Deighton, but no one seems to take her seriously. Selina even confronts the mother, but all of this does nothing. In the end, Silla ends up selling the piece of land in Barbados for $900. To me, Silla acted in the correct way and for the better good of the family. It is very well known that Deighton is a dreamer and will never stop being one. So it is up to Silla to sustain the family. I felt extremely sad when she allows Deighton to collect the money and he spends it entirely on a shopping spree. It must be so disappointing and frustrating for one head of family to be in disagreement with another. There is no way the family can move forward. The disagreement will always slow them down.

What was even more upsetting was when I read that Deighton was rejected by the entire community at ‘Gatha steed’s daughter’s wedding. I felt sorry for Deighton and even defended him at one point, asking myself why these people did this. At the end of the day, it is Deighton and his family’s situation. They have nothing to do with it. Later on the novel, we also find out that Deighton loses use of his arm in a work accident. This accident causes a bit of a distancing between him and Selina. After he comes back from the hospital he seems lost in his own little world. A bit later in the text we also find out that he joins The Peace Church and openly worships this man, Father Peace, as God incarnate. This sudden immersion in religion can be Marshall’s way of showing the reader that many Caribbean immigrants were very religious and went to church often as a way to deal with their problems and grievances. Selina accompanies Deighton to the meetings at the church but does not find any meaning in what her father is doing. After Silla sold the piece of land, Deighton seems to have completely lost it. This feeling causes him to leave the household and actually move into the Peace Church to spend all his time with Father Peace. Silla cannot stand him anymore and has him deported back to Barbados. It is reported later on in the book that he committed suicide on the way back to the Caribbean. This part was the saddest part of the book. It shows that many times people have to die and make sacrifices for others to thrive. In this case, Selina’s parents had to sacrifice their lives so that their children could in one way of another have a better life than they would have at Barbados.

Deighton’s death is too much for Silla. She becomes paranoid, impatient and even meaner, evicting Suggie and probably Maritze as well. The interaction Suggie has with Selina is important because it shows how important Suggie was to Selina’s physical and mental development. Although she is a rather sexual character, Suggie was the reason why Selina was able to develop her sexuality in a pretty much-unpressured way. In an encounter Selina has with Ms. Thompson, Ms. Thompson encourages her to accompany her mother to a meeting of the Association of Barbadian Homeowners and Businessmen. Selina does not like this Association at all and lets them know right away how she feels. However, as she is escaping from the meeting place, she meets Clive, her would-be-boyfriend. She makes out and has sex with him the same day she met him. Although Clive is much older than she is, Selina is able to establish a relationship with him because both come from matriarchal households where they face too much pressure to be good children. After a couple of physical encounters with Clive, Selina decides she wants to run away with him and thus works towards earning money to pay for a place. She rejoins the Association and works hard to come off as a good candidate for the scholarship it gives out.

However, as she fakes doing work at the Association, little by little she begins to realize how important and satisfactory it is to work for the community. She sort of gains some confidence and pride in her work. She also notices how Clive has basically given up on life, similarly to how Deighton had given up on his. This realization along with the encounter she had with Margaret’s mom causes her to leave Clive, realize how racism does exist and will always bring her back to her reality as a colored person and also notices the hardships her parents faced. The ending of the book takes a path that I did not expect. She asks her friend to help her go to Barbados on a cruise as a dancer. I did not understand why she does that. But I guess it has to do with the fact that Selina is intolerant of racism and has an urge to see how different it is in Barbados. In some ways she is going through with her dad’s dream of going back. However, she will also be stuck in limbo because if she becomes a dancer at a cruise ship to Barbados she is bound to interact with racists and bigots.

To sum up what I think about the book, Deighton and Silla are responsible for both the progression and destruction of their family. In some ways, after observing how obsessed, hopeless and traumatizing their experiences were, Selina and Ina decided to take different turns in life to see where they go. They followed the morals and motivation that their parents had. However, the mistakes made by the parents caused the family to fall apart. I think that Deighton and Silla have an equal amount of blame in Deighton’s death. It is so sad to see how Silla ends up by herself at the end of the novel. It is almost as if she worked so hard for nothing. I think that this book is very reflective of what happens to immigrants in the U.S. The older generations arrive at this country, sacrifice themselves, have certain goals and expectations for their offspring and when their offspring do not do what the parents want there is only disappointment and a sense of “It was not worth it!” The scene between Selina and Silla at the Association is important because it is in this conversation that Selina realizes that she is just like her mother, very strong-willed and uncomforting with the status quo. However, we must also take into consideration how painful this outburst must have been for Silla. Silla spent her whole life resenting her position in society. However, she did it because she wanted to move her family up the social ladder. Selina’s disagreements and lack of cooperation to accomplish Silla’s dreams must be like a painful splinter to Silla.

Brown Girl, Brownstones reflected ideas and facts we had discussed from Blood Relations. In it we saw the important roles that community, religion, associations, environment, racism and other social factors played in the lives of the characters. Sometimes they served as a way to build up characters while other times they served as ways to destroy relationships.

In the article we had to read for Thursday, the authors discussed the meaning of transmigration and how it is usually overlooked by natives of a country who often think of immigrants only as people who leave behind their home and country to go to a different society and face the painful process of incorporation into a different society and culture. The writers introduce the idea that immigrants should be called transmigrants because even though they have to adapt to a new society and make new connections, many immigrants continue maintaining a connection with their homelands and thus their identities are shaped by the established connections. After thinking about the current immigration situation in the United States, I think that the American hegemony wants to limit the transnational loyalties that immigrants have. Even though the people in this country boast about how tolerant and progressive the U.S. is, it is not true. People are still expected to know how to speak English. People have to adjust to the political, societal, and economic systems of this country. And if they have an allegiance to another country, they have to keep quiet because others do not care and may consider it a threat, sort of like Middle Eastern people and their religion. There are many government officials that cannot stand that the people in their district speak another language and often need translation from one language to another.

In the article, it is stated that immigrants residing in the U.S. live transnational lives mostly because of a changing economy that leads to deteriorating conditions and an insecure condition, racism, and growing loyalties because of nation-building projects. I personally think that most immigrants are stuck in a limbo of becoming integrated into society and maintaining a link with their country. Many times leaders of countries where people have immigrated from, expect the immigrants to support their homeland no matter what be the case. And despite the fact that many people believe immigrants will “betray” their homeland for the country they reside in now, most support the country.

This article brought up the idea of establishing transnational ties through extended family networks. I can strongly relate to this notion. My parents have established an extended family network, which in one way or another has helped them maintain a connection with Ecuador, while adjusting to the United States. This connection provides a sense of belongingness. It makes the immigrants think that they are not by themselves, that they are part of a community. Sometimes these ties elevate the status of an immigrant in his hometown, while other times transmigrants play an important role in the politics of their home country. The article also discusses today’s situation with undocumented immigrants. I agree with the fact that most do not become assimilated into American society. But we have to cut them some slack because they did not come to this country with the intention of just being a load for the American hegemony to carry. Most of the time, illegal immigrants come to the U.S. to make money and fulfill the American Dream for their families. They have to maintain a connection with home because home is part of their identity. The fact that the U.S. wants to limit that loyalty that freedom must be traumatizing for them.

The idea that most of the time, immigrants maintain a connection with their home countries seemed kind of obvious to me. However, I can sort of see how some people might not see this, or at least might overlook it as insignificant. The formation of immigrant communities based on race is because of the fact that immigrants want to maintain a connection with home. By living near each other, they are keeping their native culture alive. I agree with the idea of a dual citizenship. In my opinion, being loyal to two countries is okay. You can’t help that some people were born and raised in other countries, thus feeling allegiance to them but also feeling allegiance to their current country because they live there. What national governments must do to make the situation convenient to them (and what most do) is use the transnational ties established between immigrants and their families to establish economic and social connections with the country. Only by doing so will it promote incorporation as well as transnationalism.

Brown Girl, Brownstones was a very enjoyable read. I, honestly, did not expect to like the book as much as I did. I found the characters very relatable and so different from one another, which made them compliment each other. It was very interesting to see Selina change so much throughout her journey of becoming a woman and how she dealt with her sexuality, family and community. I think Marshall really highlighted some of the biggest issues a child faces on their way to becoming a young adult. Throughout the book, I was proud of Silla for pushing for her dream of owning a brownstone; and in a way she fulfilled the stereotypical immigrant who works hard all day. Deighton was frustrating but also heartbreaking. I think his dream of striking it rich with accounting or his other little attempts were all doomed to fail, and he continued to follow that dark path. HIs splurging of all the money from the land was the breaking point where we could see just how lost he was. It was frustrating to read about his actions. I think Ina faded more into the background, as she became the quiet, respectful child who did as she was told. Selina was much more rebellious and she had a loud voice. It was interesting to see her grow up because I found her to be so much like both her parents. She was a dreamer like her father, but she worked hard like her mother. It was nice to see her relationship become stronger with Silla, and I think Silla inspired her to go on this mission to be her own woman. Selina left Brooklyn for the Caribbean with Deighton’s dream and Silla’s strength. I know of a lot of family members who’s children return to the homeland once they are adults and I think it can result in mixed opinions from the parents. Personally, I think my mother would have been so upset. In her eyes, she worked so hard to make a life in a new and better country so I could have a better life, and she would see my return to the homeland as me tossing it all away.

The breakfast scene (Book 3) with all the women of the house was a little frustrating.  It was hard to see Silla become sort of crazy about Deighton’s land. I think it showed how rocky their relationship was and how hard the times were. It was also sad how Selina tried to reject her body maturing because she didn’t want to be like the rest of these women, who to her symbolized a sort of evil and corruption. I think that overall, this was one of the most powerful scenes in the book.

 Theorizing Transnational Migration focused on reasons for transnational migration and the debate on immigration. The article discussed how Filipino and Caribbean immigrants would still be connected to the home country and their extended families. I was able to connect with this from first hand experience because my family is still very connected to our extended family in Israel. For my extended family they’ve had children go back and forth between U.S. and Israel to receive an education (usually higher level like college). Also we helped family that moved here find jobs and “maximize the utilization of labor and resources.” Another of the article that I liked was about the debate of immigrant loyalties to the U.S. and reducing the flow of immigration. Its been an extremely heated debate currently especially with the current issue of illegal immigrants coming from Mexico.

Local and international links and relationships engulf the idea of transnationalism. The aim of this article is: to focus on how immigrants within the US are having their allegiances constrained, to “reframe the concept of immigrants,” and finally to open new debates with this newly constructed image. This article focuses on immigrants from St. Vincent, Grenada, the Philippines, and Haiti.

The term ‘Transnational,’ which holds the definition of surpassing or breaking borders and barriers, goes hand in hand with migration. The article argues the reasons behind transnational migration falls under three main categories: poor “social and economic conditions” in labor, racism, and political alliances. Because of Capitalism, weaker and less profitable cities begin to economically and socially deteriorate. Their workers would escape to cities that were “emerging as centers of communication and organization” (i.e. Harlem) (50). Once in these new cities, however, immigrants are subject to new forms of discrimination, and new forms of labeling. Also, the efforts of the country of settlement to naturalize these immigrants require them to redefine their “political identity.”

The article seeks to reorganize the manner in which we interpret an immigrant’s situation. They are not “uprooted,” the article notes, as many maintain strong cultural, social, and economical ties to their homeland. Interestingly, the article also touches upon the ambiguity when it comes to defining an American Identity. Should immigrants abandon their connections to their homelands and adopt an entirely new culture? Or should America adopt a strict practice of pluralism and multiculturalism?

One part I found interesting was the exploration of the Greek diaspora. The first noteworthy idea was the depiction of foreign-born Greeks as having a dualistic culture. As the article notes, they were not “transplanted Greeks” but simply had an understanding of the “American ethnic.” I feel that this continues to defunct the idea that immigrants are lost and “uprooted,” where here they are depicted as having strong multinational connections. Going further, the purpose of the diaspora eventually evolved into a “transcendental territory,” where people who identify with their “Greekness” can satisfy their needs and wants. It is a sort of mecca, where people are able to return to a strong, accepting culture, and not necessarily an existing nation.

As the article moved on to discuss examples from the Caribbean, it immediately focused on migration and transnational networks. It stated that the creation of the networks allowed a migrating family to maintain any resources and social positions (of course this was sometimes not the case when dealing with racial standards in the country of settlement). Having an extensive family network, however, allows for social mobility and economic prosperity. It is not only a safety that family members have, but also an incredible business opportunity if utilized correctly. As money is made in the country of settlement, it is then placed in a business that generally helps the country of origin (i.e. shipping companies), maintaining that strong link to origin.

Similar to family networks, social organizations also allowed for the creation of profitable businesses. These organizations, however, also extended immigrant’s outreach to a political level. Many of these organizations, notably the Haitian ones, were against political regimes and dictatorships, campaigned for political representation within the US, and even fought against discrimination against their nationality. Some organizations, those supporting Grenada and St. Vincent, worked with the home countries and were even able to “obtain more lenient immigration quotas.”

Even though transnationalism plays an important role in the development of nation-states, it is done so subtly. It is interesting to see how US responds to this idea of transnationalism. Even though it may seem to support it, the bottom line is the final allegiance should lie with America. Policies, such as the Proposition 187 that “denies vital services to undocumented immigrants,” specifically draw lines between the legal immigrant and the undocumented one.

The idea of a nation identifying itself as a global nation solidifies the transmigrant’s identity of belonging to a nation while residing in a different nation. This is a great thing for the home nation, but I see how this troubles the government of the residing nation. It brings doubt to how loyal their citizens are. It also makes it harder for the government to control and discipline their citizens if their citizens adhere to foreign principles above local laws. Socially, and politically, it can cause many troubles. During World War One these transnational links were viewed as detrimental to the U.S. cause. However, this flow of immigrants gave the nation the cheap labor that they needed to improve the economy. When the immigrants made transnational ties, the U.S would be able to use these ties to get political or economic influence in foreign nations. On the other hand, the Philippines, Haiti, and other nations were able to use their transmigrant networks to improve the conditions back home.

As I read this paper, I began to realize the extent that my family here has influenced our relatives in Ecuador. I always knew that whatever reunion or fundraiser we did was because my family misses Ecuador and they want to give back in any sort of way. Now, I realize these things that we did had a big impact at home. My family has links through Ecuador mainly through our religious community, which is based on the Church of Saint Teresa. In January we finished funding the new roof for a church in Deleg, Ecuador. Every year on Christmas, we do a procession around a couple of blocks in Sunnyside, just like many Ecuadorian communities do around their local parishes. I participate in these events and I believe that I can adhere to the American policies and the Ecuadorian policies. I am not sure if this is always the case, but I feel that it is in Ecuador’s best interest, being a developing nation, to not try anything too rash against the American government. However, we as transnational Ecuadorians, should be able to fight for political influence in America to stop discrimination and improve conditions for Ecuadorians in the United States, as many immigrants have done before us.

The term “transmigrants” are given to immigrants who have multiple identities. This means that they reside in one country and is engulfed in that country’s economy and politics but also have connections in another country. The meaning of transnational has changed over time. It was first used to describe corporate structures that had roots in more than one state. Then it was used to describe political ideas that spread through various borders. Today we use transnational is used to describe a particular form of migrating, transnational migration. Transnational migration is described as a process where people develop coexisting relations to their country of origin and the country that they are residing in.

The reason for transnational migration can be contributed to many factors including the country or the people. One reason is instability. The place of settlement and the country of origin both have damaged economic conditions. Therefore, transmigrants don’t have a place to settle economically. Another reason is racism. Racism causes transmigrants to feel insecure about their identity in a particular country. They are pressured to assimilate but at the same time shunned because of their race. The last reason is nationalism. Transmigrants are pressured in one country to maintain allegiance but also pressured in another country to do the same. This causes transmigrant to question which side to pick so they choose none. Transmigrant can be described as in between two countries.

Transnational migration can be linked to nation states. Nation states were created to maintain the state’s powers. Each nation state has its own government and the citizens of the nation states are forced to be loyal. This is similar to past immigrants who were forced to give up their past lives to start a new one. For example, immigrants coming into America were forced to be Americanized. This meant that it was unacceptable for immigrants to maintain ties to their homeland. However, many immigrants still do this anyway. Transnational migration can be beneficial to a country. For example in Greece, the dispersed population contributed to developing educational institutions such as libraries, universities, academy, etc. Even the poor families contributed to the development of these institutions. These transmigrants did not consider themselves as Greek but instead viewed “Greece as a state with its own autonomous identity.”

There are some transmigrants who constantly go back to their country of origin even though they have a home and business where they settled. In doing this, it is harder to maintain everything because there are pieces everywhere. So, instead of going back to the country of origin to maintain a business, transmigrants often just invest in properties or businesses in their homeland. There is also another interesting situation that is used by transmigrants. This is called a family network. Transmigrants spread their family throughout multiple countries. This way the family is able to “maximize the utilization of labor and resources in multiple settings and survive within situations of economic uncertainty and subordination.” When transmigrants use the family network, this helps further the family’s social and economic positions because there is always jobs available due to the family connection.

In conclusion, the term immigrants has been modified to become transmigrant because many immigrants today do not fully forget their past and start a new life. Instead they hold onto the past and further their life in the country of choice. This is linked to many factors including distrust in a particular country’s political and economic system or simply racism. Transmigrants are in between two places because they feel that it would benefit them more. This is true when factoring in multiple investments and the kin network that spreads through various countries. Overall, transmigrants play a hidden role in influencing a country’s political and economic systems.

When I first read about Deighton in Brown Girl, Brownstones, I though he was a cool guy. He had a dream and loved his family (somewhat). And I respect him for it. Though, he did lack motivation and wasn’t being realistic, he didn’t seem like a problem until book 3 and 4. I understand his reason for not wanting to sell the piece of land in Barbados. It was true that it was his land and he had a right to it. The only thing that I would condemn him for is that he wasn’t being practical with the land. He could at least rent it until he had enough money to pursue his dream. When Silla went ahead and sold her land with forgery and all, I was sympathetic to Deighton, who lost a dream and his hope. Though I also saw this as a wakeup call for Deighton to get on his feet and earn his dream. However, I no longer feel that way. After he claimed the 900 dollars, he went on a shopping spree and wasted all the money on useless things. It seemed like it was considered a lot of money back then, so I did some research to see what the value of one dollar in 1940 would equal to now. According to DollarTimes.com, $900 has a value of $15,095 today. That’s a lot of money. In just one day, Deighton wasted all 15 thousand dollars, which is something I can’t imagine. As I was reading, I felt the rage Silla had felt.

Transnationalism is a theme in Brown Girl, Brownstones and it is examined further in the JSTOR article. I couldn’t help but think how the Chinese immigrants also had a trans-nationalistic history. My grandfather was one of many Chinese that went to the South America to earn money and send home, similar to United States immigrants sending money home. He was always between the two countries. Today, we still have this transnationalism with some Chinese immigrants. Many of my neighbors are new immigrants and frequently contact relatives who are still living in China. A few times a year, the family would visit their relatives. This reflects the transnationalism that the article describes. My neighbors are able to have frequent contact only because of the improvement of technology. Skype, long distance telephone calls, and planes all contribute to the strong ties connecting immigrants to their home countries.

In the last two books of Brown Girl, Brownstones, something that caught my attention was Selina’s changing relationship with her father. Early on, Deighton is introduced as the center of Selina’s world. She would sneak into the parlor to see him and would spend hours on end either talking or just being around him. As we move into Books 3 and 4 though, and as Selina matures, she starts to see her father in a different light. After a brief stint as a factory worker, Deighton severely injures his arm, leaving it limp and useless hanging by his side. While rehabbing in the hospital, Deighton stumbles upon a newspaper called The New Light. The New Light is a paper that publicizes a sort of religion lead by the Father Peace. Selina, after becoming enraged at her father for being so consumed by this “religion”, asks to see Father Peace one night. At the “Kingdom,” a run-down brownstone, Selina sees Father Peace for what he really is; a small man who uses a cult of personality to take in people and almost brainwash them. As Selina takes this all in, she wonders why her father can’t be praised and exalted like Father Peace is. Instead of trying to do his best and making something for himself, Deighton is completely content being a follower. As Silla remarks earlier in the novel, it was as if Deighton was happy he injured himself since he then had a reason to take it easy in life.

Reflections of Deighton and Selina’s relationship can also be seen in her relationship with Clive Springer. Clive is your average slacker. After never reaching his full potential as an artist in the Village, Clive simply gave up. He daydreams and philosophizes all day, but he never really does anything. He used to sit at his easel, staring at an unfinished painting in front of him, but eventually even stopped doing that. His entire day was soon relegated to lying down on his couch. At first, Selina almost loved this about him. Yet, this attitude, like it did between she and her Father, began to grate on her. She wondered why Clive had all of these aspirations but never made an attempt to reach them. It was almost if Selina was drawn to Clive due to his eerie resemblance to her father.

The article from Callaloo was interesting to me because it helped me better understand why the Black Diaspora is considered different to other Diasporas throughout history. The two main causes for the Black Diaspora are the Atlantic Slave trade and Colonialism; most other Diasporas throughout history were caused by war and invasions. Another big difference about the Black Diaspora is what is defined by a return to a homeland. As stated in the article, there are two components to a Diaspora- dispersal from a host location and a desire to return to that homeland. The Black Diaspora is unique in that there is no set homeland and not everyone involved really wanted to return. Blacks were taken from all different countries from all around the world; they were not unified under a single country, but under a single race. Slaves taken from the Caribbean did not want to return to Africa because that was not their homeland. Also, many blacks were so far removed from their origins that they did not want to return to any homeland at all. This is very much different than other Diasporas, such as the Jewish Diaspora, where there was a strong desire to return to a centralized homeland.

Going almost hand in hand with a Diaspora is transnationalism. Transnationalism refers to the increasing transborder relations between peoples beyond their state boundaries. This is often done through the migrations of people between countries and the networks they establish between their homelands and said new country. As discussed in “From Immigrant to Transmigrant,” by Nina Schiller, the reasons for these migrations and their transnational effects are often different, but they often stem from deteriorating social and economic conditions in one’s homeland and other associated problems. Ironically, a very large part of transnationalism is the role immigrants play in a global economy.

Often times, few members of a family will immigrate first to help prepare for the rest of the family. This may mean securing a job or even finding a place to live. Then, these initial family members may send money back to help fund the immigration of the rest of the family or even provide for family that is not immigrating. These payments are called remittances and are a large portion of the money that leaves and enters small countries. Though on a small scale, these payments play into a global economy. Another economic side of transnationalism mentioned in the article is the importance of economic centers and their role in a global market. In short, transnationalism has shown that it is more profitable to place certain operations in cities that are emerging as centers of communication and organization. These cities would have diverse groups of peoples who interact and carry out business along networks established in countries other than the ones they reside in. Though capitalism had always been dependent upon global relations, transnationalism strengthened the idea that a global economy is only as strong as the bonds between each country. Besides the economic side to transnationalism, there is also a political side. Due to transnationalism, many politicians have had to change how they think about local elections. Since there are very strong ties between the United States and many countries in the Caribbean, for example, a person running for office in the Caribbean will need to appeal to their constituents in the US as well as those in his country. I think this surprised me the most. Like we analyzed in last weeks article about Harlem and Jamaica, it is really interesting to see how small communities hundreds of miles away can still have a very pronounced voice in what is happening in their home land.

The authors make a valid point when they identify two distinctly different definitions for transnational. Like most, I always understood that to be transnational meant to be an immigrant in a new country who cut almost all ties to their old country. However, the authors argue that this is one of the most common mistakes made in modern society. They argue that to be transnational actually involves a person who merges two nationalities into one by maintaining ties to both countries instead of simply being “culturally homogenous.”

I particularly like the three examples that the authors present of what it truly means to be transnational in today’s society. Glick Schiller was overlooked in a dinner conversation about his own homeland. Just because he had moved to the United States many years ago, international development experts assumed he no longer kept connections with his home country. However, Schiller actually maintains strong ties with the workers on his land and even visits frequently adding to his dual identity. The story about the West Indian children was also really interesting. I never would’ve imagined, mostly due to their young age, that school kids could have such strong ties to their original countries and even move back and forth from the United States just to attend school there. Each of these stories truly delineate what it means to be transnational in todays society.

I didn’t realize how essential transnationalism could be for some immigrants. Moving to certain profitable countries or cities such as the United States is integral to some immigrants’ life styles while still maintaining strong ties to their home countries. However, being minorities, many of these immigrants face racial discrimination with the types of jobs they receive. Even if they secure promising jobs, the authors argue that their opportunity is drastically limited by their ethnic background. Honestly, this makes me sad to hear. I had thought that we, as a country, had reached a point were ethnic backgrounds were no longer limiting factors to a person’s success. It really is a shame because most immigrants idolize this country as the country of opportunity when in truth, their opportunities have already been limited before they even arrive.

The last section of this article that stuck out to me was the section on Caribbean and Filipino transnationalism. Part of the section deals with the survival of immigrant families as a unit. Unit families such as the Carrington’s work together to enhance their social and economic position. There were family members station all around in New York, Trinidad, and St. Vincent. When one part of the unit experienced hardship or was laid off, the rest of the family helped support him/her. Another similar story features a Filipino couple who were cast off from the support of their families and moved to the United States without their children as a risky investment. As they continue to live in Queens today, their children live successful lives in the Philippines while the parents still have dreams of buying their own house in the Philippines when they can manage it financially. This exemplifies the importance and strength in family ties. This whole article was very eye opening to me in the sense that I had never before understood what it truly meant to be a transnational. Now however, I have a new respect for the word and the kind of life it entails. We don’t notice it sometimes because of the fortunate lives that we live, but a lot of people struggle with their lives and find transnationalism integral to their survival.

Brown Girl, Brownstones (Books 3-4)

In the last two books of Brown Girl, Brownstones, we see Selina’s transformation from a young girl to a woman. We start off with a breakfast with Silla, Iris, and Florrie. Toward the end of this breakfast, filled with anger and envious of the other people Iris and Florrie were talking about, Silla swears that she will sell Deighton’s land behind his back. Selina goes to her mother’s workplace to confront her about this but ultimately makes little progress. True to her word, Silla sells the land. However, when she lets Deighton collect the money, Deighton goes on a shopping spree and spends all of the $900 that was received. Months later, the family goes to ‘Gatha Steed’s daughter’s wedding, where Deighton is rejected by the entire community.

Later, Deighton loses use of his arm in an accident at the factory where he works. After the accident, we notice that his attitude has changed. He is lost in his own thoughts most of the time. He has also joined The Peace Movement, which worships a man by the name of “Father Peace.” Selina joins Deighton at the home (or “kingdom”) of the Movement in Harlem, where he is recognized by Father Peace. Deighton eventually leaves home to work at a restaurant of the Peace Movement. Angered by Deighton’s actions, Silla has him deported back to Barbados. It is reported that Deighton is killed (by drowning) on the journey back.

In the year after, Selina resorts to wearing black, Miss Mary dies, and Silla evicts Suggie. Miss Thompson “dares” Selina to go with her mother to a meeting of the Association of Barbadian Homeowners and Businessmen. At this meeting, Selina tells the others there that the Association “stinks.” On her way out, she meets a boy named Clive. She has sex with him that night and forms a relationship with him as well. She eventually wants to run away with Clive and creates an elaborate plan to fake her devotion to the Association, receive its first ever scholarship, and use that money to run away with Clive.

Things take a turn, however, after a dance recital. She goes with her dancing friends to a friend’s (Margaret’s) house. There, in the midst of the celebration, Margaret’s mother calls Selina over and subtly ridicules her for her skin color. Shattered and now with a different view on life, Selina ends her relationship with Clive, rejects the scholarship offered by the Association, tells the truth about her actions at the Association, and decides to go to Barbados.

Let me start off by saying that I lost all respect for Deighton as I was reading this. At first, he is presented as a man who only wants the best for his children. Although he has unrealistic dreams, he seems to be approachable and loves his children. However, he did not have to spend $900 on a shopping spree. He could have easily saved most of the money (to buy a house) and used some of it to buy things he wanted. So, I found the shopping spree absolutely unnecessary. Furthermore, after he loses his arm, he also seems to lose his identity. At the “kingdom” of the Peace Movement, when Selina calls for Deighton, a woman says that there is no “daddy” in the kingdom. In addition, his actions mirror those of the others there, praising Father Peace. Thus, Deighton is not Deighton anymore but rather a follower with no identity whatsoever. He also indirectly disowns his family by leaving home to work at the Peace Movement’s restaurant and may have even killed himself in his return journey.

Though Silla’s actions seem to be geared toward helping the family, I found some of her actions unnecessary as well. She could have respected the fact that Deighton’s land was solely his. However, she chose to betray him and sold the land behind his back. That in itself signaled the downfall of the entire family. She seems to even have regrets for doing so. This is especially noticeable at the wedding when she sees the other women seated with their husbands.

Thus, it can be said that a series of bad (and somewhat irresponsible) decisions by both Deighton and Silla contributed to the downfall of the entire family.

I saw the scene with Margaret’s mother as a turning point in Selina’s life. It is true that she had been growing throughout the book before this instance. However, this is the moment when she truly realizes how cruel the world actually is. Many of the problems she experienced prior were more domestic, family-related problems. However, this is the first time we see something more personal affect Selina, and we see how much it affects her.

One final point I want to briefly talk about is Selina’s relationship with Clive. It seems that their relationship grew more out of each other’s needs than actual love. These needs included that of rebellion as well as that of physical touch. It seems that, for a period of time, both Selina and Clive needed someone for support, and they found that support in each other.

The book was an enjoyable read. I liked the character development, and I felt some of the emotions conveyed by the story. I was awed by Selina’s transformation from a ten-year-old girl at the beginning to a twenty-something year-old woman at the end, and I also appreciated how the author touched upon many of the major challenges that a girl like her would face during that time period.

“From Immigrant to Transmigrant: Theorizing Transnational Migration”

The article, “From Immigrant to Transmigrant: Theorizing Transnational Migration,” discusses the often-understated role of transnational ties in migration. The long-held view on immigration holds that immigrants undergo a process of incorporation into the countries they migrate to. However, a newer concept views immigrants as “transmigrants,” whose lives depend on international connections and whose identities are shaped by these transnational connections. The article states that the current immigration debate here in the U.S. is one that focuses on limiting the transnational loyalties of immigrants. It describes this view as “myopic” (48).

The authors state that immigrants live transnational lives because of: (1) changing forms of capital that lead to deteriorating conditions and a non-secure existence, (2) racism leading to insecurity of these immigrants, and/or (3) growing loyalties to the home and host countries because of “nation-building projects” (56). Thus, it appears that immigrants may lead transnational lives because incorporation is just not possible. Leaders imagine their countries to be de-territorialized in the sense that emigrants will continue to support their home countries even while living abroad. This is in contrast to a common notion of nation building that holds that people owe their loyalties only to the country they live in, whether or not it is their home country.

Transnational ties (e.g. through extended family networks) seem to provide support to immigrants, in both social and economic situations. There were examples of transnational businesses that grew from these ties. These ties also helped in maintaining or elevating an immigrant’s status at home. Transmigrants also play a role in the politics of their home countries as seen in the struggle against the dictatorships in Haiti.

However, the authors also state that the importance of these ties have largely been ignored in past studies. This is in addition to the assertions that the current immigration debate centers on defending “against the undocumented” (59) and is about confining immigrant loyalties to the United States.

I always thought that it was a generally accepted notion that immigrants maintained ties to their home countries. It seems logical that they would maintain some ties to their native culture. However, after reading this article, it seems that this is not the case. It seems that this phenomenon was denied by many and was accompanied by many attempts at reversal. This stems from the idea that the inhabitants of a nation-state should have one and only one loyalty: to the nation-state itself. However, this seems to present a question:

Would the leaders (or hegemonic forces) of such a state prefer to promote transnational ties (and thus potentially create alliances) with other countries? Or would they rather promote incorporation into the state and promote unity within the state itself?

It seems that a nation-state must strike a balance between the two options: to both promote a certain degree of incorporation as well as transnational ties.

However, it seems that leaning toward incorporation creates an appearance of ignorance to an objective observer. For example, in the third anecdote that the authors provide, public officials ignored the fact that transmigrant children best socialize in an interconnected social space. So, it appears that these higher officials either failed to realize this idea or purposefully ignored the importance of interconnectedness.

In general, I found this article very interesting. I was especially fascinated by the following:

“Haitians of peasant backgrounds…have developed a rhetoric in the form of songs sent through audio cassettes within which tensions and fissures within transnational households and kin networks are communicated” (55).

It was interesting to see how audio recordings and songs were used to communicate between people living in different countries.

A Quick Bonus

So, I actually read (or attempted to read) “Black is the Color of the Cosmos.” This is mainly because I got the email after I finished reading the article. I will admit that this article was a relatively difficult read, and it took a lot more brain power than it should have. But, since I read it, I will briefly recount what I grabbed from the article.

What I saw was a discussion of the word “diaspora.” Why do we use the term? What’s so important about it? It usually refers to a set of commonality among a group of scattered people; however, there are differences in what commonalities are perceived. There was also a discussion on whether the concept was worth holding on to because Africa is seen less and less as “the point of entanglement” (417) of these people. There was also a discussion about the true commonalities of the black diaspora. Should they be “grouped” according to their African roots or “divided” along previous colonial regimes?

The reading about transnational migration was quite intriguing because right from the beginning, old ideals about immigrants are challenged, and new theories are proposed. The reading does that waste time to pose it argument, it states in the beginning, and goes about proving it brilliantly throughout the article. The article debunks the idea of “uprooting” and poses a more rational theory that immigrants should be considered more in a transnational manner, meaning having ties (personally, politically, economically) to other countries. An excellent example that was used in the article was how there are transnational companies that currently exist, which operate over many countries. Using this denotation, the immigrants today especially, can be considered transnational immigrants, because they still have many ties with their home country, or even other countries.

Taking into consideration the vast improvements we have experienced globally, communication and transportation are so easily available. Families that are thousands of miles apart can video chat with each other in a manner of seconds. We no longer depend on the insufficient and time consuming process of sending mail to communicate. If we want to send money to family in a different country, we can do it almost instantly using banks or Western Union. To take it a step further, a person can send something to a country that is thousands of miles over-night using Fedex. Previously in history, this luxury wasn’t available and it would take months for communication and transportation to occur. Thus, understanding our current status technologically, our society is much more efficient, and to maintain ties with other countries is much easier, thus supporting the thesis that immigrants should be considered transnational

Going back in history, many individuals migrated to better their life either politically or financially. This sole reason still exits today, as people are moving into urban centers such as cities due to the economical opportunities available. Previously in history, many individuals sought to leave their home country, to start a whole new life in a different, more prosperous country such as America. However, this wasn’t always the case, and this resulted in individuals being inevitably stuck. But, now these immigrants have an opportunity to return home via a quick airplane flight, in comparison to the month long journey on a ship. This goes to prove how an immigrant will continue to have ties with his home country, and how he can not just be identified as being affiliated from one country.

On the other hand, the question of national identity arises. Which country would an individual be identified from? If this question was asked to immigrants, varying answers would exist, which supports the article’s thesis. Many individuals still have ties with their home countries, especially in terms of finance. A personal example would be that even though I am a US citizen, my family and I still have ties with relatives back home in Afghanistan. In addition, my family still owns land back in Afghanistan, thus the land poses as  physical evidence to an existing connection with the home country, that many other immigrants share, such as the Haitian immigrants mentioned in the reading.

Immigrants should not be generalized into a certain nationality, especially today. The old belief that immigrants “uprooted” from their home country, and completely assimilated into their new country can not be a valid statement in our current status globally. If immigrants were to be categorized, the only category that is most suitable would be transnationalism due to technological advancements in our current era, and due to the multiple national identities that identify one individual.

Mohamed Mohamed

The article “Theorizing Transnational Migration” is essentially a debate on trans migrants, who the article says “are immigrants whose daily lives depend on multiple and constant interconnections across international borders and whose public identities are configured in relationship to more than one nation-state.” The article then looks at how the United States has reacted to these trans migrants politically in which the article seems to suggest US policies are making it difficult for the allegiances and loyalties of trans migrants.

Today, migrants remain to share strong ties with their home communities therefore producing a divide of loyalty between two societies. Previously though, the idea of assimilation was a strategy to prevent this divide in loyalty by making immigrants forgets about their ties with home communities. Moreover, the article mentions how transnational connections have inspired political change to home societies, giving the example of Haitians and Filipinos communities in the US (Page 58). Finally, at the end the article reads, “This particular emphasis on categories of legality has a dual thrust. The debate is as much about confining immigrant loyalties to the U.S. as it is about reducing the flow of immigration.” Which shows the US political response in dealing with immigrants.

The “Black is the Color Of the Cosmos” on the other hand speaks about black people’s complex identity. The article speaks about the Black diaspora and how the modern factors associated are Atlantic slave trade and colonialism. The article continues to compare different types of people of African descent and how different they have become due to the Black diaspora.

Finally I would like to share a quick reflection on Brown Girl, Brownstones. What I found most fascinating about the novel was the great influence society and where one comes from has on one’s identity. Selina has tried, through rebellious action, to find an identity that was strange to her origin but at the end she failed. The racism of Margaret’s mother was Selina’s way of figuring out that there was no escape from cultural identity. That people will always categorize you based on the nature of your appearance and label you with an identity based on that category. It is almost impossible, as Selina found out, to label yourself with an identity that is unique to you and that society will accept.

Black Is the Color of the Cosmos or “Callaloo” and the Cultures of the Diaspora Now by Wilson and Colly looks at the term “diaspora” and its use with relations to black history. Specifically, this writing focuses on Callaloo a journal under the supervision of Charles Rowell that has documented the “broadening” scope of Diasporic journalism. The concept of Diaspora “interrogates blackness as an intricate confluence of multiple histories and cultures.” Two historical events that engender the modern Diaspora are the African slave trade and colonialism. The aftermath of these events drives the concept of African Diaspora. However, Callaloo and other journals question why hang on to the idea of Diaspora? Is the concept a necessity to the identity of blacks? The author of the article argues yes, stating that all the identifications of Diaspora apply to many modern black populations, specifically the ideas of dispersals from homeland, integration into the new location, and a desire to return home. However, there must be discernment between the numbers that occupy the Diaspora. For example, US born blacks and African exiles to the US have a different idea of what their homeland is. Furthermore, Diaspora is a necessary as a position of political existence and a location of “cultural belonging.” Modern Diaspora has changed however, for writers argue that Africa is no loner the center of the concept considering the vast dispersal of black population around the world. Finally, Diaspora should not be linked to colonial regimes in Africa, or more significantly in the Caribbean, where a focus on colonial regimes will overlook the multitude of interactions between the islands’ diverse black populations.

From Immigrant to Transmigrant:Theorizing Transnational Migration a study by Schiller et al focuses on the reasons behind transnational migrations from the Caribbean to the United States. Previously, researches have labeled immigrants as people who uproot themselves from their homes and move to another locality where they struggle to integrate into the new society. However, there is a new kind of immigrant today: a transmigrant. Transmigrants “are immigrants whose daily lives depend on multiple and constant interconnections across international borders and whose public identities are configured in relationship to more than one nation-state.” These transmigrants are involved in their new countries economy and politics, but at the same time are “engaged elsewhere in the sense that they
maintain connections, build institutions, conduct transactions, and influence local and national events in the countries from which they emigrated.” Researches are seeking to reframe the concept of immigrants to include transmigrants and then assess the debate of immigrants in American politics. The study presented three vignettes that highlighted the need to redefine the view of transmigration. Previously, the word “transnational” has been used in economics to identify corporations with bases in multiple countries. Now, the adjective is being used to describe processes of “broader phenomenon of globalization.” Also, there has been renewed interest in the flow of culture through borders and the deterioration of cultural boundaries.

The article accounts three reasons for transnational migration: the deterioration of employment in labor sending and labor receiving countries, racism that leads to social and political insecurity, and the nation building projects of the home society create loyalties with the immigrants. Furthermore, capitalism has changed so that there are no longer investments in entire countries, but rather in specific cities for the purpose of certain profits and lower taxes. These cities act as magnets to immigrants, but once there, immigrants will most likely lack a secure position and experience racism. These leads to an immigrant base that is disloyal to the nation state and leads to a dispersed populace.

The article notes a problem with the history of migrants in the U.S.. It suggests that past immigrants, whether it was jews, palestinians, or italians, all maintained connection with the home land through letters or money for example. However, this fact was disrupted by an idea that all immigrants who came to the U.S. were uprooted and that they either completely assimilated or joined the American melting pot. No where however, was there seen the actual truth that immigrants continued to maintain strong ties with their homeland. A study was undertaken by Carnegie corporation in in the World War to assure the allegiance of settled immigrants. It found that most immigrants maintained ties with their homeland. However, reports continued to suggest that immigrants were completely loyal to the United States. Today however, there is a revision of this idea with the exposure of the actual findings of the study.

Maintaining transnational ties has allowed a series of things for immigrants. These include immigrants having their children cared for by kin, and yet act in key decisions as well as purchase property and build homes and businesses in their homeland. These ideas however are not yet acknowledged by many anthropologists. Schiller believes having a stronger understanding of the lives these immigrants live across multiple borders will aid researchers in immigrant studies.

The process of settlement for these transnational immigrants focuses on family strategies that and networks across political and economic borders that ensures a household maintains its resources and social positions. An example include a Caribbean family with two acres of land and children who couldn’t find work. Those children migrated to another country where they temporarily settled and worked to support the family back at home. The family was spread across multiple countries, but it still maintained a strong connection and monetary support between the siblings. Another example was a Philippine family whose parents risked moving to America and leaving their children behind in school. The children moved back and forth between countries for jobs and schooling through their parents support, after which the children began supporting their parents who continue to live in the Queens. The article also mentioned Haitian families who maintain family visits for the purpose of maintaining small stores and business through stock brought in luggage. Furthermore, transmigrant families would maintain businesses across borders with family members working in different countries receiving and selling goods from one another. These small businesses can turn into massive companies as seen by the Philippine shipping businesses. Transmigrants might also use organization that link different populations in different populations. These associations facilitate the movement of immigrants into  new countries as well build strong transnational interconnections. The examples given were that of massive Philippine and Haitian transnational organizations. Furthermore, these organizations connect immigrants with the politics of their home country where the immigrants continue to have a strong voice. Such activities are “spearheaded” by immigrant leaders in the U.S. that maintain  connection with leaders in the homeland. Not only do these organizations hold power in the home country, but also in the U.S. as we learned in class with the Caribbean organizations.

During WWII, the United States and Great Britain established the Bases-for-Destroyers Deal, a well-named trade of US warships for British military bases in the Caribbean. This deal marked the beginning of the decline of colonialism in Britain and the rise of America. The Bases Deal was made largely without consulting the Caribbean people. They did not know what to expect from the United States, but feared that they were swapping one imperialist power for another. Additionally, they recognized this short period as an opportunity to gain political inclusion and reform. Oddly enough, the activism of the Harlem nexus was essential in fighting for Caribbean reform. Furthermore during the Great Depression, blacks returning to the West Indies brought with them these sentiments and race consciousness, which continued to fuel social social agitation. In Harlem, the growing radicalism acted as a warning for President Roosevelt. He knew that he needed to handle the situation in the Caribbean sensitively, and he also sympathized with the Caribbean people. He sent Charles Taussig to gain an understanding of the Caribbean, and Taussig in return suggested that Roosevelt instruct all representatives to conform to the customs and practices of the Caribbean. This was vital in easing tensions in the Caribbean.

(EDIT: When reading Brown Girl, Brownstones I was an idiot and thought that they lived in Harlem. This did made me question why Selina would be allowed to go all the way to Prospect Park with Beryl, but I told myself kids might be allowed to do that in that time period. I realized in class that they actually lived in Brooklyn, but my response assumes they live in Harlem.)

The first two books of Brown Girl, Brownstones are a captivating representation of life in Harlem at this time. Selina is a girl who just wants to go to the movies, eat Hooton’s, go to the park, and avoid the wrath of her mother. I think her mother is well described as she walks through the park. In this sweltering summer, “Silla brought the theme of winter” walking through the park. Her strong-made body is juxtaposed with the women and their idleness. Silla is hardworking, strong-minded, and wrathful. On the other hand, Deighton, is misguided and undetermined. He is often switching between fields that he believes will make him money. Silla explains that he was practicing to be a mechanic, and now he is studying to be an accountant. However, he is ignorant to the fact that white men won’t hire him, even though he has been rejected from such jobs before. Deighton and Silla are also juxtaposed in the explanations they give of their childhood to Selina. Deighton describes the days he spent playing around with his friends, while Silla explains a life of tireless slave work in the fields. Selina feels respect and love for her mother when she explains this.

The most surprising aspect of this representation of Harlem was the rampant sexual conduct and how openly it was discussed. Silla knows that her husband’s trips to Fulton Street are to visit women and openly speaks with another women about it. Her response is that he should take care of his woman before heading out to the concubines. Suggie Skeete is one such woman who is very sexually active. The book goes into a lot of detail about her interspersed with quotes from Silla of judgmental remarks about Suggie. Despite this, there is one moment when Deighton is out on Fulton Street and Silla feels outside the circle of life in Harlem. She looks to Suggie’s window in subtle jealousy.

The second book mostly focuses on Selina’s coming-of-age. Beryl says Selina is still just a kid. Selina longs for the freedom she witnesses in the lovers at the park. She describes one time when her father beat her. Beryl’s father Percy is a strong, powerful man and openly speaks of Deighton’s foolishness in dealing with his new land.

Brown Girl, Brownstones is a novel that focuses on the experiences of Selina Boyce as she navigates her way into maturity in the Flatbush area of Brooklyn. As the title of the book would imply, Selina lives in a brownstone along with her older sister Ida, her mother Silla; who is an ardent supporter of the concept of the American dream and is determined and indeed has been determined to make that dream happened ever since she begged her mother to allow her to go to America to work and send remittences back home, and her father Deighton who doesn’t share his wife’s work ethic and puts a strain on their marriage with his inability to remain in one trade. Initially he is portrayed sympathetically and is shown to be working towards achieving gainful employment in the field of Accounting, this sympathy is quickly yanked away as it comes to light that he has been sleeping with an older woman.

The first two books outline the major conflict that will be present in the rest of the book. It’s obvious that there is major tension present in the Boyce household, the mother and father are shown to hold different ideologies and because of this Selina is forced into an awkward position between the two. Selina has a rather romantic perception of both the upper crust of American society (where she would like to one day find herself, no matter how impossible that may be) and Barbados from which her family is from. Silla has absolutely no desire to return to the West Indies as all she remembers is a life of backbreaking work. Deighton, however, after learning that he has inherited an amount of land there immediately starts planning out the house he’s going to build there. This seems like a very significant point on account of the common lens through which we see immigrants from the West Indies. We conceptualize them as being inherently hard working but as Deighton shows some of them can be lazy and shiftless just like the rest of us.

Moving on to the article “Capital of The Caribbean”, as author Jason Parker explains, Harlem during the period of Caribbean immigration was an incredibly important hotbed of political agitation for social change both domestically and abroad. Prior to World War II the community in Harlem was fragmented along ethnic lines. The Italian invasion of Ethiopia was the catalyst for a greater Pan-African movement. In a way it fomented a sense of solidarity between all those who were having their lives dictated for them by the imperial governments put in place by Europe, even though Italy didn’t stick around long enough to set up such a government. When America threatened to establish themselves in the area a la Great Britain members of the UNIA and other pro-black organizations began to agitate for their right to self-determination. Much of this pressure came from neighborhoods like Harlem and is partially responsible for Roosevelt’s softened attitude towards the Caribbean. Without Harlem’s influence who knows what the United States would have done in the West Indies.

After reading “Capital of the Caribbean,” I was pleased to discover that I was reasonably well-informed on some of the topics that were discussed. At the same time, I learned that the things I thought I knew were far too narrow in scope. Zooming out, I was able to see the much broader ramifications of these seemingly binary interactions. I am speaking mostly about the wartime efforts and exchanges of the United States and Britain. While I already was aware that the United States used trades of carriers for bases in order to maintain its neutral façade, I never paid much attention to, or learned about, how this change in power would affect the people who lived near where these bases were located. People were concerned about whether the infamous Jim Crow attitude would be inherited, and generally Caribbean people had no say in the fates of their countries. Eventually, however, as a result of Roosevelt’s limited ties with Harlem, the neighborhood which the essay proclaims to be the capital of the Caribbean, and as a result of various committees and diplomats, some Caribbean voices were heard, and policy decisions had their concerns in mind.

As in Blood Relations, I was remarkably unaware of how important Harlem was to not only New York, but to the entire world. These works helped to inform me otherwise. Harlem was truly a beacon of hope for people of African descent all around the world, and it was a hub for immigration and social change. Even more so, I wasn’t aware that Harlem played such a huge role in the advancement of Caribbean nations, and I didn’t know that so much intellectual activity in regards to social change was present in the Caribbean and was brought up to Harlem.

In the first two books of Brown Girl, Brownstones, the main character Selina is dealing with her identity as both an American, a Barbadian, and a young girl. This mix of identities is interesting, and her world-view is heavily shaped by this. On one hand, she desires strongly to reside with the rich whites who occupied the brownstone before her, but these thoughts are beaten down and discouraged once she realizes the impossibility of this happening––a result of her skin color. On the other hand, she romanticizes the idea of moving back to Barbados, even though she doesn’t fully understand the implications that such a transition would have for her and her family. As a young girl, however, her experience can surely be compared to those of any girl her age. She is starting to recognize the signs of maturity, and is dealing with the struggles, emotionally and physically, that come along with it. Ina, Selina’s sister, is the one who introduces her to some of these concepts, and is ultimately responsible for making Selina feel a bit like an outsider.

I think that “Brown Girl Brownstones” speaks a powerful message about life as a Caribbean immigrant in New York. It seems as if Selina and her family will never be able to get away from the shadow of the white families who used to live in their neighborhood as can be seen by Selina’s incessant day dreams of joining the white family who used to live in her house before her. Unlike the rest of her family, she doesn’t seem to have any close ties to her home country in Barbados and instead would rather trade in her current life for the luxury of an upperclass New Yorker family. This all seems kind of strange to me because I’m very proud of my heritage and could never imagine trading the life I have now for any other. I wasn’t even born in Peru but because of the way i was raised, I’ve always felt a strong connection to my heritage. Granted, the food is delicious and that goes a long way towards my love for my country, but either way, I like being different. I wouldn’t want to be like some of the other people who have no connection to their heritages so that’s why this whole idea of Selina shaking off her heritage to be like the rest of the “normal” Americans seems so strange to me. To be fair to Selina, its quite evident that she is still very innocent. Like when she was curiously interested about her older sister’s menstrual cramps. Another predominant theme presented in the novel is the race relations between the Caribbean immigrants and the hegemony of white Americans. Selena’s mother, Silla, is a housemaid for a wealthy jewish family and she has an interesting perspective on the race relationships. In her eyes, she sees that the hegemony that is currently in power will do whatever it takes to stay in power. Silla feels that her family and other black are being oppressed by this hegemony and that the only way for them to secure power of their own is through hard work. Her dream is actually for Selena to become a big time successful doctor in America. She feels that this is one of the best ways for Caribbeans, and blacks in general, to gain some power in American society. This whole race relationship is further exemplified when Deighton, Selena’s father, applies for a job as an accountant at a predominately white firm. Despite everything his friends and family tell him, Deighton invests months of work into studying accounting only to be rejected by the firm due to his race. It seems that he actually wanted to subject himself to racism. Everyone told him that it wasn’t a good idea but he was to stubborn to listen and ultimately failed. Its possible that he just wanted other people to pity him so he wouldn’t feel as guilty for some of the bad things that he’s done in his life. Overall, I found this section of reading intriguing and am actually curious to find out how the rest of the story will develop and whether or not Selena will develop the connection to her heritage that I myself hold so dearly.

This week we read the article “Capital of the Caribbean”: The African American-West Indian “Harlem Nexus” and the Transnational Drive for Black Freedom, 1940-1948 by Jason Parker. In the article, Parker argues that Harlem acts as the “capital” of the Caribbean because so much relating to the Caribbean is centered there. In the 1940’s there was a large Afro-Caribbean population that was coming from many of the Caribbean Islands. The situations in their home countries were not great since they were ruled by colonial powers. Upon moving to Harlem, Caribbean people made it a base of operations for political movements. There were political parties from other countries that were started in Harlem. Many Caribbean elections were affected greatly by the Caribbean immigrants in Harlem. The Caribbean immigrants also forced the US to acknowledge the Caribbean countries in the geopolitical sphere and forced the Allies of WWII to take action in Ethiopia after the Italian occupation. The political and cultural power stored in such a small area is incredible. Especially, how the entire world was affected by the situation in Harlem. Its power was so great that it had a larger effect on the Caribbean than any place in the Caribbean itself, this making Harlem the capital of the Caribbean.

This week we also began reading Brown Girl, Brownstones by Paule Marshall. I think that it is good to read a novel like this when studying Harlem. Though our approach has been fairly balanced between a macro and micro view, we tend to focus more on the macro. But looking at the micro helps immensely to develop our understanding of Afro-Caribbean immigrants to New York. In essence we are studying the lives of people and thus at points, we must take a closer look and see how those lives really were. This novel gives us a pretty good representation of this through the multiple characters it focuses on.

It is interesting to see views on race from the micro perspective. Selina is a young girl in the novel whose parents came from Barbados. She and her family live in a Brooklyn Brownstone. People of Dutch-English and Scotch-Irish Ancestry originally owned these houses but then the area became mainly Barbadian and West Indian. Salina believes that “She did not belong there. She was something vulgar in a holy place” (Marshall 3). And when she imagines herself living with the white family that once owned the house, she imagines that “she was no longer a dark girl alone” (Marshall 3). This indicates that Selina what appears to be an inferiority complex relating to the color of her skin. I imagine this occurred often during this time period as black people were often treated badly very openly. An example of this in the novel is when the black women are walking on the street and “sometimes the white children on their way to school laughed at their blackness and shouted ‘nigger’” (8). Though race relations between black and whites can be studied in the academic macro context, this novel provides a much deeper emotional connection and understanding.

Another big idea is that of movement and economic stability. One of the main reasons that immigrants left the Caribbean and came to New York was the will to find favorable economic conditions and live a comfortable life. This set up a system of back and forth movement with transnational networks as its central nervous system. The Deighton Boyce, Selina’s father, wants to find work that will gain him a good amount of money. He wants to use the money to return to Barbados and live comfortably on plot of land that he has inherited from his family. He does not view the move a permanent but as a means to an end. His wife, Silla, on the other hand sees this differently. She wants to stay in Brooklyn and use the money from the plot of land to pay for the house in Brooklyn. This story has helped me understand that there weren’t uniform motives for moving to and working in New York City.

The article that focused on the influential aspect of Harlem was quite eye opening because it occurred during an infamous time period of the WWII. We all, during some point in our life, learned about the significance of WWII, along with the atrocious events that occurred such as mass killings of individuals, along with the Holocaust. However, this article interestingly acknowledges that fact, and states how the larger events occurring in a macro sense, over-lapped the other crucial micro events such as the independence and reform movements of countries in the Caribbean. A reference that was quite intriguingly used by Jason Parker, was the overlapping of the betrayal of Brutus’ death over the other significant events that occurred in the play “Julius Caesar.” This allusion is perfect to describe the relations of the reform movements in the Caribbean, according to the the greater WWII occurring simultaneously.

Another interesting aspect was how reform organization such as the JPL along with other political organization formed in Harlem before they appeared in the Caribbean countries themselves. The irony behind this is that, these organizations were formed for these countries, for their betterment, however, the organization existed in Harlem first, thus emphasizing the great influential power of Harlem during this time. During this time, Harlem was truly stating to develop into a much more complex nexus of power. Gradually, more individuals wanted to implement these rights exposed to them in the U.S., to their own home countries. Many individuals especially the West Indians were becoming politically aware, and were pushing for reforms, especially when taking into consideration the destitute life of the individuals living in these poverty stricken Caribbean countries. In addition, the invasion of Ethiopia was interesting due to how it brought together all the blacks, to conform into union, and proclaim the betterment of their race. How Ethiopia, once being the stronghold of the African nation, known for its superior defensive abilities, was prided by all black individuals in a nebulous manner, and how it affected them after its invasion is quite extraordinary, taking into consideration their conflicting views beforehand.

Along with giving an historical time line of the immigration of Caribbean individuals in Harlem, “Brown Girl Brownstones” gave a first hand view of the immigrant’s experience. A significant motif in the novel was the use of Bajan throughout many instances in the book. A very interesting point in the book was how it was actually looked down upon to resemble a native from a foreign nation, such as Bajans from Barbados. Many of the immigrants actually being called Bajan as an insult, because they did not want to be connected to the hell-hole they left in the first place (Silla)…. However, others such as Deighton had a completely opposing view towards their home country. Deighton actually viewed it as a heavenly paradise, that he was longing to return to, while his wife on the other hand, wanted NOT to assimilate, but become an American, having no connection to Barbados at all. This brings about the question of how their past reinforced their beliefs, especially for Silla, who spent her childhood in pure misery, doing slave work non-stop, along with physical punishments such as being whipped. While Deighton spent most of his time playing with the “boys” his various games, reminding him of his great youthful years, which he remembers while resenting his current life. What is genuinely interesting is how both of these individuals are married, from the same country, have similar aspects in culture and race, but have such opposing and contending views towards being what they are…Bajan.

The content of the readings for this week, along with our class discussion on Tuesday, have all caught my attention. It is awesome to see how Caribbean immigrants living in New York City (mainly in Harlem) and elsewhere within the United States played a huge role in the liberation of their home countries from foreign oppression. Today, when we think about the Caribbean we only think about the stereotypes associated with the area. All we can picture is sunny beaches and resorts full of tourists that go to these places to fool around. However, we can never seem to associate these places with suffering, poverty and other types of social struggles. Most, if not all islands of the Caribbean were European colonies at some point and natives had to fight for their freedom from foreign oppression just like the United States did with Great Britain. Immigrants residing in Harlem provided the islanders with financial, diplomatic and moral support so that they could ultimately be successful at liberating their countries from foreign rule. In “Capital of the Caribbean,” by Jason Parker, we learn that Harlem was the epicenter of the global black movement for freedom. During the early half of the twentieth century, Harlem faced many social changes due to the immigration of people from the Caribbean and African Americans from the South. This changed people’s view of the black community within the nation. There were no longer small, weak communities of black people that were usually taken advantage of. Now, there was a strong community that advanced the general cause for black freedom. West Indian immigrants often advocated for black unity and freedom. Immigrants like Marcus Garvey, promulgated black consciousness and helped set the political agenda for black America.

African Americans throughout the Western Hemisphere sustained a newly impassioned interest in the global dimensions of racial and colonial oppression. The Caribbean presence in New York was very important because they led political currents on the revolutionary socialist left, supporting movements within their home countries. The global black movement for freedom became even stronger and effervescent with the Italian-Ethiopian conflict. Ethiopia was and still is a symbol of black unity, power and freedom. Throughout the history of the world it has been the only country in Africa without being successfully colonized by a European power. The temporary Italian occupation of Ethiopia united black people in advocating for freedom and liberation. Right after the invasion, the United States established a deal with England that gave the U.S. control over several naval bases located on islands within the Caribbean. This deal was necessary so that the United States could continue to appear as neutral in the war. In order to prevent problems with the people residing in the islands where the naval bases were located, President Roosevelt sent Charles Taussig, with the support of White, the leader of the NAACP, to get a general feel of the area. In his trip, Taussig conversed with many important Caribbean people who advised him about the different issues and situations in the area. When he returned to the United States, Taussig urged President Roosevelt to take action that would improve the relationship between Americans and people from the Caribbean. Taussig literally told Roosevelt that the U.S. had to acknowledge its racial faults, redress them in its island presence and establish a good relationship with the people in the area. Thus in 1941, Roosevelt proposed the creation of an Anglo-American Caribbean Commission. The commission convened in 1942 to study problems like food shortages and poverty. Although this commission’s efforts at facilitating large scale reform failed, the commission at least succeeded in bettering public relations between blacks and whites to a certain extent.

A phrase from this article that caught my attention was when Parker says that Black New York acted as both a cashbox and a soapbox for those fighting for the independence of the West Indies. The cooperation between figures such as Walter White, W.A. Domingo and Norman Manley was crucial to larger efforts at political reform. In other words, without people like the latter mentioned, the fight for freedom would have taken longer. This global black movement of freedom has been successful to a certain extent in areas all around the globe. People like Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., Nelson Mandela, and Desmond Tutu have used the ideals associated with the movement to fight for freedom and liberation. However, something that I want to know more about with regards to this issue is the role of the black church in fighting for freedom. What role did it have? I would like to know specific religious leaders that played fundamental roles in this struggle.

The first two books of Brown Girl, Brownstones, written by Paule Marshall, were very interesting. By having read only 53 pages of Marshall’s piece, I was able to notice the suffering that many immigrant families go through. In these two books, Marshall introduces a couple of characters some from Barbados and others from the United States living in Brownstone houses located in a Bajan community within Brooklyn. The book centers around a young girl named Selina Boyce. She has an older sister named Ina, a dad, Deighton, and a mother, Silla. The first few pages of the book describe the house in which the Boyce family resides. What makes Selina’s description interesting is that we get a “first hand experience” of how a Brooklyn neighborhood looked like to a young child coming from an immigrant family. Right from the beginning, the reader gets the sense that the Boyce family, like any other family has many issues and problems that do not only have to do with being immigrants residing in a country but also issues related to growing up and identity, as well as race and social status. Silla does not seem to appreciate her daughters. Life has not treated her well. As a little kid she had to work in plantations and was mistreated by whites. Consequently she has huge resentments with society as a whole. The only one she seems to love is her son, who died at a very young age from heart problems (she blames her husband for the son’s death). Selina suffers because of racial tensions and also because she has not gotten her first period or developed a woman’s body yet while her best friend, Beryl and Ina have. Deighton does not know how be a good head of family. Instead of losing his pride and getting a job that may not be what he wants but would bring food to the table, he spends his time chasing dreams that he believes will take his family out of their economic situation but in the end always abandons them or is unsuccessful. He received land from his sister, but is very stubborn and does not want to sell it to get money to pay the bills. His wife is the one that has to take care of everything. To make things worse, he has a mistress whom he openly fools around with. It is as if he was a rebellious teenager more so than the head of a household. The wife, despite her many resentments, seems to be the only one in the family to keep reality in check.

In the first two books, Marshall also introduces two women, a sick elderly woman by the name Mary and her daughter, Maritze. The relationship between both of them is not good because Ms. Mary wishes to remain in the growing Bajan community in Brooklyn where she has lived her whole life, while her daughter wants to move out. The mother always judges her daughter because the daughter is unmarried and is not what Ms. Mary expects a daughter should be. Marshall also introduces Suggie, an immigrant woman who has it hard and resorts to sleeping with men on the weekends to supposedly take her mind away from all the tensions associated with her sufferings.

Through her book Marshall depicts the issues immigrants have when moving to the United States. Many times these individuals do not only have sufferings associated with living in an unknown place where they do not have support from anyone but also face issues due to their own mistakes. Moving to the U.S. and chasing after the American dream is the stereotype portrayed by many authors and movie directors in their works. However, in this book, Marshall is trying to show how many times the struggles associated with the American Dream become mixed with personal problems people have that make moving up the social ladder very hard. Thus far we see that the characters introduced here turn to drinking, denial of reality, sex, and cheating on the spouse to temporarily relieve themselves from tensions. However, these acts and states of mind are serving more as strains in their path to success. Silla and Deighton’s relationship is falling apart because of Deighton’s lack of cooperation in the household as the father and husband and Silla’s inability to work with people.

After reading Book 2, I get the sense that Selina has trouble finding her identity because of all the pressure she experiences from different people in her environment. Her mother never appreciates her, often making it explicitly clear that she prefers the deceased brother to her. Her sister and best friend serve as reminders that she has not entered puberty yet and despite the fact that she admires her father, she probably does not accept the fact that he does not do anything to improve the family’s circumstances. Society as a whole does not have her in a high standard because of her skin color and origins. Thus she must feel left out and secluded from different social circles.

“Capital of the Caribbean” was an excellent transition from Blood Relations. It explored the post-renessaince period and viewed Harlem as the center for all this reform and even power. I found the article to be interesting because I had never thought of all the issues going on in the Caribbean during the time of the World War. I found it almost poetic that this was the time when West Indians and African Americans got together for a common cause, transnationalism. It paralleled the countries at the time getting together for the War. It was a time where a lot of communities came together and pushed for independence, as well as representation in the government. This article showed the connection between the civil movements in the United States, which matched those of the Caribbean and I was surprised that I hadn’t learned of this history before.

Brown Girl, Brownstones was much easier, and entertaining read than Blood Relations, in my opinion. I love the innocence of Selina, matched by the complexity of each of her family members. I think Paule Marshall does a great job of capturing the time and giving the reader a feel for the environment. She also conveys the struggles that both women and African Americans had to go through. It talks about the different jobs such as “Big Momma” had and the various jobs Deighton attempted. The discovery of the land Deighton received shows how people still had an attachment to their home countries. Silla wants the money for the land, but Deighton has a dream to go back and live off the land. It’s a difficult conflict, because it shows one person who wants to leave the past behind, while someone else is still fighting for the homeland. I think I can relate to this because in my family, my mother chose to leave everything behind, whereas my father is more involved with the country he was raised in. The author does capture the struggles of immigrant families really well. Selina has a more romanticized view of Bimshire, but she doesn’t understand how much worse it was for her parents there. I think her mother and father are very similar to any immigrant family, where they leave everything and work hard so their children can have a better life. I think it made Silla a much tougher person, and migrating has that affect on people.
One thing that I enjoyed a lot was reading about these places nearby such as Fulton Street, De Kalb and Prospect Park. I think it’s difficult imagining them in the time period of the book, versus what they are today, and it makes it very interesting.

I have heard of Britain and other European countries pulling out of some of their colonies during World War II, but strangely, I had very little perception of what this meant. I have not thought about the transition of powers and the people involved, both of the colonizers and the colonized. The Europeans present would not have just given up their power and probably would have been unused and unadapted to the typical European life to be expected to return.  They still owned the majority of the land, regardless if the home government withdrew, right? Anyway, these questions are too finely pointed for this article- Capital of the Caribbean, which is ironic because the article frequently states that it focuses on an overlooked micro aspect of a macro subject – not micro enough. It describes the larger political situation of the Caribbean during World War I and discusses key figures, all with Harlem acting as the nexus/ capital of the Caribbean. Before World War II, during the Depression, there were many labor riots and radical/reform groups in the Caribbean and the larger black population in America because times were rough and these groups were already just scrapping by. Then, Italy invaded Ethiopia- the one notoriously uncolonized, independent African state, a symbol of black pride; this event rallied blacks together, protesting that other countries should defend Ethiopia’s freedom, which lead to the Allied powers intervening. As previously mentioned, during World War II, European countries had to leave some of their colonies because they were too involved in the war to worry about over sea territories. President Franklin D. Roosevelt wanted strategic military bases in the Caribbean, but he did not want to oppose the inhabitants of the island and he did not want to anger the growing Caribbean population of America, particularly in Harlem. So he sent Taussig, a white man with good relations with the black community, and Walter White, member of the NAACP, to discuss a relationship between America and the Caribbean among the common Caribbean people. Through the understanding of this mission, the Anglo-American Caribbean Commission was born, which was like an advising committee of Afro-Caribbean people. Harlem was so deeply connected that campaigns there that it determined a representative of the AACC. However, some people still viewed American politicians as another imperialist power.

Brown Girl, Brownstones is about a second generation Barbados girl, named Selina, her family (mother- Silla, father- Deighton, Ina- sister), and various neighbors in Brooklyn. First chapter, the author, a woman of with a similar background story, analyzes the feeling of being an outsider within a home built for distinguished white families, feeling their ghosts roam about her. Her description of the homes are of stark, aloof, twisted agitators that effect her life and family, while being distant and unconcerned. She highlights the burning contrasts of the white walls to her family’s dark skin, like the contrast between the former inhabitant of the house and her life. Meanwhile, the remaining white residents of the neighbor are Miss Mary and her daughter who are poor, rejects and they fight between moving on and living in the past with the ghosts of the illustrious past inhabitants. Other white neighbors are described as locked up in their homes, as to refuse the change within their neighborhood. The sun and heat are also prevalent motifs, which represent the climate and features of the Caribbean, while acting as almost as a symbol for oppression and struggle. One major conflict is land- Deighton has a romanticized view of his past in the Caribbean and does not want to sell the land he inherited on the island, while his wife does not glorify her past and homeland, and wants to settle and buy a house in New York. Further martial conflicts results from their dead baby boy that the mother cannot get over. She views Selina as the reason why her son died and resents her for it, while Selina tries to pardon her love. Overall, Selina is caught in the middle, of an awkward phase and her parents’ relationship. Her father has a lover and he has dreams of working a higher wage “white” job that he will probably never receive, and her mother has a major chip on a shoulder against the world. In general, sex is a major component of this book. Snuggie uses sex as empowerment and comfort, before she has to work and be alone for a weak. Sex effects everyone, as everyone can heard when Snuggie has it, and even the children are growing up and coming to terms with their sexual identities. This is apparent as Selina and Beryl discuss being a woman in terms of getting your period and growing shapely. Ina, the prettier sibling who has gotten her period and the beloved child, was supposedly going outside to flirt with boys. Breasts seem to be noteworthy to Selina because it represents womanhood. Again, this class reads a book with a heavily keen interest in women within Caribbean communities.

“Capital of the Caribbean” by Jason Parker demonstrates how Harlem became the new capital for African Americans. WWII was one of the main causes for the migration of African Americans to Harlem, however, there was another reason before WWII. Ethiopia has always been a symbol of unity between U.S. African Americans and West Indians. However, when Italy invaded Ethiopia this sparked the rise for equal rights and freedom. After the invasion, the U.S took part in the Destroyers for Bases Agreement. This agreement states that the U.S destroyers will be given to the Royal Navy in exchange for Caribbean naval bases. In doing this, the U.S.had a neutral standpoint in the war. After the possession of the Caribbean naval bases, FDR sent Charles Taussig to the Caribbean islands to learn about the people residing there. Taussig was chosen because he had support from Walter White who led the NAACP. Taussig gave FDR feedback on the situation of the people living on the islands. In return FDR imposed various policies to improve the Caribbean standard of living.

Brown Girl, Brownstones begins by first introducing the brownstones. The brownstones were buildings built by Dutch-English and Scotch-Irish. But eventually, the West Indians started to take over. The brownstones are inhabited by mostly Barbadians and this is where the Boyce family is introduced. Selina Boyce, a ten year old child, fantasizes about welcoming the past white family that has previously lived there. In her imagination she feels like she fuses with the white family and becomes part of them. However, she is quickly reminded that this is an imagination when she sees herself in mirror. Selina has these imaginations because she wants to feel connected with society. Ina Boyce, Selina’s sister is also introduced. Ina is described as having pains because of her coming of age. The Boyce family also had a son that died right before Selina came into this world and Selina believes that she took his place in the world. Deighton Boyce, Selina’s father is introduced as someone who dreams about wealth but not working for it. For example, he claims that he got land from his sister that passed away and he was going to move back to Barbados to create, “A house to end all house.” In reality he doesn’t have that much money. Finally Silla Boyce is introduced as a person who constantly works and is never cheerful. “Her lips, set in a permanent protest against life, implied that there was no time for gaiety.” Even though immigrants move to America they are still constantly reminded of their homeland. For example, Suggie Skeete, Selina’s tenant, prepares a meal of okra and water and in doing so she is reminded of her home in Barbados in which there are yam patches, mango trees and lizards. There is also a contrast in the wide open land to crowded rooms. More tenants are introduced and they are Miss Mary and Maritze, Miss Mary’s daughter. Miss Mary is an elderly woman that is about to die and Maritze is constantly annoyed about her mother. They are the only white people living in the brownstones.  Going back to Deighton and Sillia Boyce, their relationship is damaged. Deighton doesn’t save money for the house, instead he spends it on clothes. His excuse is the land he has in Barbados however, he doesn’t even want to sell the land for money. Silla is the one who does all the work in the house. Deighton just thinks of ways to make money but never does anything. Deighton also goes out and plays with other women. Later on in the novel, Silla questions Selina about the meeting she had with her father. Silla tells Selina about The Third Class and her hardships when she was Selina’s age.

As months passed, the subject of all discussions was land. Selina asked her mother if she could go to prospect park with Beryl, her best friend. Her mother told her that she could go and that she is more of a woman than Ina. Selina then walks around town and finds out the whole town is speaking about her dad and his land. Selina meets up with Beryl and they make their way to prospect park. On the way to the park Selina describes how she feels free. “Life suddenly was nothing but this change and return.” When they get to the park, Beryl tells Selina how she is bleeding from down there just like Ina. Selina can’t comprehend the idea of becoming a woman because she is still a child. Deep down inside Selina wants to bleed but in reality it is not her time yet. Eventually Selina realizes that everyone is connected like parts of a mosaic. Selina finally feels accepted into the society in which she lives in.

I really enjoyed reading through the article on the “Capital of the Caribbean” because it helped place Harlem’s role in the West Indies on a national scale. Blood Relations does a good job in showing more local connections between Harlem and the West Indies. Taking a close look into West Indian neighborhoods and the social dynamics between families there effectively illustrated the power that political agitators had in their community, but it also left plenty to be desired in terms of how they had an effect on the national level. Before reading this article, I had never heard of the “Bases for Destroyers” agreement. Aside from its ingenious military implications (trading old destroyers for military bases anywhere sounds like a good deal any day), it really helped continue America’s position on limiting overseas interference in the Western Hemisphere. Due to this American position, I definitely sympathized with West Indians who were nervous about an American force in the Caribbean. Especially considering what happened in the Philippines less than 50 years prior, I think the West Indians had every right to be a little suspicious. Thankfully, Roosevelt, Taussig and their esteemed friend Walter White, were able to quell any fears. By involving someone who had strong ties with an organization that helped native blacks and West Indian peoples, and being sensitive towards normal customs, the USA showed they were there to help when they finally arrived.

Moving over a thousand miles North in Brown Girl, Brownstones, we are taken to a small, mostly West Indian neighborhood in Brooklyn, New York. After a couple weeks of focusing on Harlem and the West Indian communities flourishing there, we now move over to a different borough with many of the same types of communities flourishing. Though Brown Girl, Brownstones is fiction, it still provides a very realistic view into life the life as a second generation West Indian immigrant since Marshall herself was a second-generation immigrant who was born in Brooklyn in the 1940s.

The first book of the novel “A Long Day and a Long Night” introduces many of Selina Boyce’s family and neighbors. Many of the people introduced seem to provide a different perspective into the life of a West Indian immigrant. Deighton Boyce, Selina’s father, is first introduced as a hard worker, at least to me. We meet him while he is reading accounting letters and studying finances with hopes to one-day make a living working as an accountant. Later on in Book 1, Deighton is revealed to be a much different person. He has tried to succeed in many different occupations, but tires of each and moves onto a new one every so often. His sleeping during the day isn’t because he works all night, as I had originally thought; it is actually because he spends his nights with a woman other than his wife. His wife, Silla Boyce, is his complete opposite. She rarely cracks a smile and is entirely focused on work and eventually buying her house and rooting her family and herself in Brooklyn. I feel like she is an extreme depiction of many West Indian immigrants who wanted to do exactly the same. A neighbor that is introduced is Miss Thompson. Miss Thompson works all day and all night, starting at nine at night working as a cleaning woman in an office building and continuing on into the next day when she holds down a shift at the beauty parlor. Miss Thompson is depicted as beaten; she is said to look gaunt and she has a large unhealed, and presumably untreated, ulcer on the instep of her foot. Here is a picture of one of the many West Indian women who worked ridiculous shifts doing whatever they can to make some sort of income.

Book 2, “Pastorale,” is a lot shorter and not as encompassing as Book 1. In fact, Book 2 focuses only on Selina and her friend Beryl. On this particular day, Selina has an interaction with Beryl’s family that isn’t too pleasant. Beryl’s father, Percy Channelor, talks with Selina about her father. Percy seems to look down on Deighton and his dream to work for the “white man.” He also seems very concerned with Deighton’s newly inherited land. I sort of think he may be jealous, since it isn’t everyday someone is blessed with two acres of land that they can use for whatever they want. Further into Book 2, we face some topics about womanhood. Beryl is beginning to go through puberty and is sharing all of her new experiences with Selina. This small scene feels out of place, especially after reading through Book 1. Book 1 is filled with many woman who are well past the age of puberty and are also well past the age of innocence. I’m not sure if this juxtaposition was done on purpose or not, but this scene definitely gives off a different vibe than most of the female experiences described in Book 1.

The history of the “Caribbean Nexus” just goes to show that there are so many things in history that affect other events in many areas around the world. Harlem, being thousands of miles away, was essential for Caribbean self-determination. Harlem did not only influence intellectuals in islands like Jamaica, they also sent funds for political campaigns. Only by looking deep into history can connections like these be made. This desire to improve the conditions in their homeland was used by the U.S. to improve relations with the Caribbean, especially during the Second World War. This war also affected the Caribbean community back in New York City.

The book Brown Girl, Brownstones by Paule Marshall gives a unique insight to the life of a girl growing up in Brooklyn during the Great Depression. This book, while having many interesting storylines, tells much about the Caribbean people that settled in Brooklyn neighborhoods that used to be occupied by European immigrants. Buying their homes seems to be the most important thing that they could do to ensure a future in America. Getting a job that was not domestic work was also another major step forward. Living during the Great Depression was also adding to the struggles of this community.

Selina Boyce is a girl that is looking to identify herself, and the differing views of her parents make it harder to find an answer. Being lucky enough to have land back in Barbados, although its a small piece, shows the two different views that the Barbadian immigrants had about a better future. Silla Boyce, Selina’s mother, spent all her life working hard and sought opportunities for a future in America. She wanted to sell that land and use that money to buy the house and put down roots in America. Deighton Boyce, Selina’s father, saw the land as an opportunity to go back to Barbados and live a pleasant, luxurious life there. They each have these different views on what to do with the land because they both had differing views on their homeland. Silla saw it as a place where, even at Selina’s age, she worked day and night with no sight of any progress. Deighton remembers it as a place where he enjoyed his youth. Selina is leaning towards going to Barbados; her father made it look like the dreamland, and she has never been there before. I can relate to that dream, when I was 12, I would have liked to move to Ecuador. My first visit to Ecuador was one full of fun experiences. However, as I grew older, and had more visits to Ecuador, I understood that it was not an easy place to live in, especially in the agricultural area where my family was from. Her father also seems to be a man that just dreams, and the Second World War may change Selina’s choice on which parent’s dream to partake in.

Adrian Horczak

People of New York

Professor Jennifer Lutton

February 25, 2015

Capital of the Caribbean and Brown Girl Brownstones

Capital of the Caribbean, written by Jason Parker, explains how the people of Harlem supported the movement for independences of colonies in the Caribbean. This information is often neglected since the Renaissance in Harlem is often stressed more than this event.

This program began because the British traded their outposts in the West Indies with battleships from the United States of America. This signified that the United States would be exerting control over the area. The Caribbean people found this as an opportunity to lessen foreign countries’ control over them. In addition, since the US did not know much about what was going on there, so it did encourage a gradual transformation of the West Indies into independent states. Therefore it formed the Anglo-American Caribbean Commission (AACC), but without any representation from the Caribbean. Nonetheless, it was able to improve the region’s economy and the residents’ standard of living. The commission also pressured the British government into granting universal suffrage to Jamaica. Once this occurred other nations in the Caribbean believed the same fate was possible for them.

Harlem, along with black communities in other large cities, was a major source of money and attention for West Indian independence. Harlem brought awareness of the Caribbean’s cause of gaining independence to white Americans, such as Taussig and White. Assistance from Americans was crucial to end white imperial rule in the Caribbean.

The main characters in Brown Girl, Brownstones, written by Paule Marshall, are the members of the Barbadian Boyce family: Selina, Ina, the father, and Silla. The book describes their struggle living in poverty in Brooklyn. They had to wear old, unwanted clothes Jews had given them. Moreover, they had to save every penny they made to save up money for land, so that they had a permanent place to stay. Like many West Indian people, sisters Selina and Ina and their mother, Silla, wished to live in a Brownstone, which used to be owned by white Americans, but now were being sold to mainly black owners.

Selina’s father gets a letter that reveals to him that since his sister died, her plot of land, in the West Indies is now his. When he tells Silla about this, she requests that he sell the lot he owns so that they can pay for a down payment on a brownstone home. However, her husband does not plan to sell it. Thus, the family will not be able to live in their ideal home.

Selina wants to spend time with boys in candy stores. Nevertheless, their mother fears that she may become a prostitute in the future if she continues these practices. She told Selina that at her age she was working hard from dawn to dusk in the West Indies, the place Selina’s father owns land. This is also one of the reasons Silla wants to sell that land to buy a Brownstone in New York City.

By reading Capital of the Caribbean I realized how important Harlem was in the process of independence for nations in the West Indies.

I believe everyone in Brown Girl, Brownstones is stubborn since Silla insists on buying a Brownstone, while her husband insists on keeping the land he has instead of selling it. Rather than disagreeing with one another, they should communicate more often with one another to find a compromise. In addition, the Boyce family should focus on working hard in New York City to make a good living with or without land. Eventually, all their hard work will make them enough money to buy a house in New York.

“Capital of the Caribbean”

In “Capital of the Caribbean,” Jason Parker discusses the relatively little known Caribbean struggle for independence just before and during World War II. He also discusses Harlem’s role in this Caribbean struggle for independence. According to the essay, Harlem was a “spiritual” center for black cultural and political developments. However, many history textbooks focus on larger scale issues. In light of this, a “transnational turn” has sought to remedy this situation and provide a new view of relations in Harlem. Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia set into motion much of the black’s political agenda (which was radical). The majority of these new radical voices were of Caribbean descent, and almost all of them spoke out against colonialism.

The presence of so many West Indians made Harlem a sort-of battleground for issues in the West Indies. This was especially true of the 1930s unrest in Jamaica. Much of the call for reform of the colonial system in Jamaica (as well as the rest of the West Indies) originated from New York City, especially Harlem. The Havana Declaration signaled the weakening of British colonial rule in the West Indies and prompted many to act because many feared that a bunch of American powers would just take over colonial rule and keep the status quo. This weakening was further signaled in the Bases-for-Destroyers Deal in which the British traded Atlantic base sites for American destroyers.

The U.S. government sent Charles Taussig to learn more about the newly leased areas in the West Indies. Taussig met with many black West Indian leaders and was even endorsed by Walter White, leader of the NAACP. His travels prompted the government to become more sensitive to local customs and eventually adopt an anti-colonial stance. The Anglo-American Caribbean Commission (AACC) was formed with the U.K. to improve the economy of the region as well as standard of living. However, racial solidarity for independence had its limits as demonstrated by disagreements within the AACC itself and the arrest of Wilfred Domingo.

When the British government proclaimed that Jamaica would receive a new constitution the following year, there was a battle between Norman Manley’s People’s National Party (PNP) and Alexander Bustamante’s Jamaican Labour Party (JLP) for leadership of the new country. Harlem played a crucial role in funding and lobbying for Manley’s PNP; however, the JPL crushed the PNP in the elections. Despite this, ties between Harlem and the West Indies were (by no means) damaged, and many continued to support Manley and his ideas.

In the first paragraph, I fully agree with the author when he says, “Powerful moments…overshadow other vital—albeit less quotable—features” (98). It is a fact of life that we tend to remember the more memorable moments of just about anything. Whether it is a book, a play, the news, or even just walking down the street, we tend to remember the “big things” that happened rather than the smaller, more routine events that may play a huge role in whatever it is that is happening. Even in the recounting of history, this occurs.

Take the Bases-for-Destroyers Agreement for instance. History textbooks either (1) gloss over it briefly or (2) do not mention it at all. To be honest, I do not even recall reading about this in any history course I have taken (AP courses included). However, considering this essay, it appears that this deal had a huge role on the people of the Caribbean in terms of their movements for independence. It is ironic that such an important occurrence was overshadowed by other aspects of the War.

I found the description of Jamaican Labour Party leader Alexander Bustamante quite amusing. Apparently, he had been giving “colonial officials fits since 1938.” He was heard “swearing fealty to the crown in one speech [and] calling for the white man’s blood in the next.” He was (to say the least) “equal parts threatening and baffling” and did not have a clear ideology. To top it all off, he was eventually detained as “a threat to public security” (109-110).

However, I will be honest here. I was not a huge fan of this essay in general. It was not necessarily the topic of this article, rather than the way it was written. Some parts felt too wordy for me to grasp any meaning. I found myself rereading parts just because I could not understand what the author was trying to say. The topic was interesting; however, the writing was not as good as I expected it to be.

Brown Girl, Brownstones (Books 1-2)

In the first two books of Brown Girl, Brownstones, we are introduced to Selina, a young and frail yet defiant girl who longs to (re-)experience the past. She lives with her family in a brownstone on Chauncey Street in Brooklyn. Her older sister, Ina, is (by comparison) more graceful, as she was spared from the “awkwardness” of adolescence. Due to this, Selina seems to be jealous of her sister’s situation. We learn that they had a baby brother who died in infancy due to a “bad heart.” Selina and Ina’s father, Deighton, is introduced as a laid-back person. He is studying to become an accountant so that he could make money and bring his family back to their home country of Barbados. He tells Selina of some land that his dead sister had left him. He aims to build and own a house on that plot “just like the white people own” (9).

Deighton’s relationship with his wife, Silla, is unstable. He longs to rekindle their relationship; however, her criticizing personality prevents this. She doubts him when he gives her the news of the land. As she talks to the (very) pregnant Vergie Farnum about this, she insinuates that she misses her dead baby son very much.

We learn some more about Deighton during his adventures on Fulton Street. In a conversation with Seifert Yearwood, we learn that Deigton’s goal is to learn some accounting and get a job that makes as much as a white person. Despite Yearwood’s attempts at getting him to snap back to reality, Deighton persists in his dream. We also learn that Deighton has a mistress that he sees on Saturday nights.

Silla seems to harbor a dislike for Selina. She seems to believe that her and Deighton are making plans about the land that he has received. Silla confronts Selina about this and even returns to memories about her dead son. However, in an act of defiance, Selina tries to snap Silla back to reality and storms off.

In the second book, Selina receives permission to go out on her own. With her best friend, Beryl, she travels through Brooklyn. They eventually reach Prospect Park, where Selina sees two lovers on the ground. She grows sad because, according to her, they have achieved “the fullest freedom” (47). In this scene, she also expresses a “sullen despairing anger” of becoming a woman.

There are also a few minor characters we encounter.

We are introduced to Suggie Skeete, a tenant that lives with the Boyces. She seems to be known for bringing in men to her bedroom on the weekends. Miss Thompson is an older and frail woman who works at the beauty parlor on Fulton Street. She is revealed to have an ulcer on the instep of her foot (23). In addition, we encounter Miss Mary and her daughter, Maritze. They are two white tenants who live with the Boyces. Miss Mary is very old and weak. She lives in the past and spends most of her time replaying old memories. Maritze tries to snap Miss Mary back to the present but fails to do so repeatedly.

As I was reading, I noticed some parallels between the characters. Miss Mary and Silla are similar to each other in that they are both living in the past. Miss Mary has frequent flashbacks on past events and even refuses to move out of the house that she and her daughter live in. In a similar way, Silla tends to remember her dead son and lament over his death. She even compares Selina to him during their argument.

Similarly, Deighton and Suggie seem to parallel each other. Both seem to be carefree. In addition, they have their lovers. Suggie invites men over to her bedroom for a night during the weekend. Similarly, Deighton has his lover, whom he also sees during a night on the weekends.

In addition, Selina and Miss Thompson are similar to each other. Both are frail but in different ways. Miss Thompson works long hours and even has an ulcer on her foot. However, Selina is frail emotionally. She seems to experience conflicting feelings of anger, sadness, and happiness at random times, especially at the end of book 2.

I found Deighton’s situation quite ironic. He wants to eventually go back to Barbados and build a home there. When he recounts his childhood to Selina, his words seem to contain a hint of nostalgia. Yet, he strives to be like a white person. He wants to have a high status and make a lot of money; however, due to the color of his skin, something like that is difficult to accomplish. I feel sorry for him. Although he does not express it, he seems to be torn between his home country and the country he lives in now as well as in his feelings for Silla.

Finally, I was struck by Selina’s defiance. At the end of book 1, Selina tries to knock into her mother the idea that she is not her son and maybe even hints that she should forget about her. Then, “Selina darted around her and strode from the kitchen” (40). Selina is unlike any of the other characters in the book. Most of these characters seem to accept their fates and prefer not to do anything about it. However, Selina seems to prefer to challenge what is set out before her, even if that means challenging her own mother.

Mohamed Mohamed

Book 1 of Brown Girl, Brownstones begins with an introduction to the main character, Selina. Selina is an African-American little girl living in Brooklyn with her father, mother and older sister. Ina. Selina then finds a family photo before she was born. In the photo she is able to recognize her father but everyone else seems to have changed. Also she finds a baby boy in the photo that she explains has died. She makes her way to the basement where her older sister, Ina, lay sick. Ina is struggling with menstrual cramps that Selina is too young to understand. After bothering her sister a bit she meets with her father. Her father, Deighton, tells Selina stories of how he always had something fun to do as a kid and was never bored like her. He then informs her that he has acquired land from a diseased relative. He was really excited and wanted to keep it secret for the time.

We are the introduced to the other characters living in the Brownstones. There was Suggie who, every Saturday, waited for her lover. They would spend the night together to ease their long week at work. Also, there lived Maritze and her mother, Mary who had disputes about almost everything. Maritze dreamed of once moving from her poor neighborhood and buy a nice home somewhere in Long Island. Mary argues that she will not leave and nothing will convince her to leave.

When Deighton finally tells his wife Silla about the land he acquired, she was in disbelief. Deighton had a hard time convincing his wife. She finally read the letter and suggested that he sell it and use the money for down payment of there home. Deighton is enraged and refuses to sell the land. He claims that it is his land and he’ll do what ever he pleases with it. The debate continues between the two. Silla then goes to her pregnant friend who advises that she convince him to sell it no matter what. Silla goes to her daughter Selina for help. She tells her to try and convince her father to sell the land but Selina refuses. She agrees with her father to not sell the two acres. Her mother is angered and strikes her.

Book 2 was very short and helps us become more familiar with Selina. She is now eleven years old. After Suggie gave her rum and has a quick talk with her mother she makes her way to the nearby park. She first calls for her friend Beryl who was sitting at the family table with her father. Beryl’s father asks Selina about her father and if he is planning to sell the land. She lets him know that her is not selling the land, which brings an unpleasant remark on his face. Selina was able to tell that he did not like her father and thought he was a failure for trying to work with the white man. Afterwards, Selina and Beryl go out for a stroll that seems like a date. They then begin talking about adolescents and what happens to a female. Selina is not fond of the idea and denies that will ever happen to her. Beryl explains that it happens to every girl and that it already happened to her and Ina. Selina is lost for words and feels deeply uncomfortable. Beryl embraces Selina to comfort her.

In Jason Parker’s article, “Capital of the Caribbean”, Parker describes the growth of equality and politics in the Harlem area due to many international affairs occurring at that time period. Ever since the black immigrants came to the Harlem area, they attempted to influence the politics of their surroundings. Early on around the WWII time frame, many Caribbean immigrants and the native African Americans formed political organizations that rallied for equality and justice in the community. On the international scale, Italy advanced into Ethiopian territory and tried to take over the area. Throughout the African history, Ethiopia stood as a symbol of pride and strength for the black people. The Ethiopians had resisted many invaders since the beginning of time. With the invasion into Ethiopian territory, many of the black people around the world, including in Harlem, were angered by this ordeal. This situation brought the black people together to rally for support for the Ethiopians. The United States of America did not want to get involved directly with this international affair, so they formed a deal where the U.S. received many naval bases in many of the Caribbean nations. Franklin D. Roosevelt became involved with many of the Caribbean affairs within the U.S. and within the countries where the naval bases were located. This whole ordeal led to the advancements of black equality in the U.S. as the blacks placed pressure on Roosevelt to support the Caribbean economy. This was the beginning of the path for black equality in the United States of America and in international countries.

Paule Marshall’s novel, Brown Girl, Brownstones is a great literary piece that shows the insights of what many of the Caribbean immigrants faced while living in Harlem of NYC. The novel centers around a young girl, approximately the age of 11, named Selina. She lives in the town of Harlem with her older sister, named Ina, her father, named Deighton, and her mother, named Silla. At the start of the story, Selina describes the setting of the brick and gothic styled houses on her block. This is the first time the readers realize how the Caribbean immigrants of the town viewed the houses on Harlem. Selina loved the way the houses looked with their majestic beauty and she always thought, “her house was alive” (Marshall 2).

The readers can see that Selina, like many other kids living in Harlem as immigrants, experiences many conflicts within herself about her relationship to the white people in the Harlem community. Selina reminisces about living with a white family and feeling proud to be one of them, “she was no longer a dark girl alone…she threw her head back until it trembled proudly” (Marshall 3). However, once Selina remembers who she is and how the white people in Harlem treat Caribbean immigrants, she becomes distraught and feels left out of the world, “She did not belong here. She was something vulgar in a holy place” (Marshall 4). Whenever Selina’s family received old hand-me-down clothes from the Jewish families in the neighborhood, “Selina would spend the day hating the unknown child to whom they belonged [to]” (Marshall 8).

On the other end of the spectrum, Marshall’s novel shows the many difficulties that the white families faced as they were slowly displaced from their homes as the immigrants came flooding into Harlem. In the same brownstone house that Selina lives in, there lives a sick elderly woman named Miss Mary and her adult daughter, Maritze. These two women are white people who had lived in Harlem before the influx of black immigrants who came to the area. Miss Mary and Maritze face many complications with each other due to their different opinions. Miss Mary wishes to stay in the same home in Harlem while Maritze desperately wants to leave the Harlem area for a better place. Maritze pleads with her mother and says, “Every decent white person’s moving away, getting out. Except us. And they’re so many nice places where we could live” (Marshall 30). The readers grasp the fact that many of the white families who are still left in Harlem as their companions leave the place are filled with many hard difficulties. There were many changes occurring to the Harlem community for both the white families present there and for the new immigrants families that were coming into the area.

The novel shows the hardships that the immigrant families face when it comes to getting jobs and for getting a place to live in. Deighton, who is the father of Selina, is a man who tries out new jobs all the time. He is always looking for a job that can get him a good amount of money. Deighton is currently enrolled in a training center to become an accountant. He had heard that the white people earn a lot of money in this profession. However, many of his black friends make it clear to him that the white people will not let him receive the same salary as them. Seifert Yearwood says to Deighton, “you can know all the accounting there is, these people still not gon have you up in their fancy office and pulling down the same money as them” (Marshall 33). Deighton becomes offended and moves along on his own way. This short but important encounter between the two friends shows the everyday struggles that the immigrants faced in this new land. They had to work really hard just to make a living enough to support the family. It was hard for the Caribbean immigrants to move up the social ladder in society.

The novel also depicts the strains that many couples in relationships experience from living in poverty. Deighton and his wife, Silla, have a very unstable relationship due to their differences about what their future should be like. Deighton’s sister had died back in his native country, leaving a plot of land around 2 acres large in his name. Deighton had always wanted to go back to his native country to live there with his own people. Silla, however, has different views on their lifestyle. Silla desperately wants to stay in Brooklyn and buy one of the brownstone houses for their family. Silla keeps insisting Deighton to save some money up every week to use as the down payment for the house. Deighton, however, is insistent on keeping the land so that the family could live in his native country, Barbados. This forms a hostile relationship between the two. Silla even takes it a step further by saying, “I feel I could do cruel things to the man [Deighton]” (Marshall 27). Their relationship highlights the importance of trying to make a decent lifestyle for the family. Silla wants to buy a house so that the family could live comfortably in the neighborhood. Deighton, on the other hand, wants to leave Harlem and the Americas to go back home, where he feels his family will be the safest and the happiest. It shows the effort that many of the immigrants made just to etch out a comfortable living for their family.

“Capital of the Caribbean” by Jason Parker explains how Harlem was the “nexus” of the drive for black freedom. Prior to WWII, blacks in Harlem were organizing politically and gaining power as to pushing for equal rights. This effort was pushed forward when Italy invaded Ethiopia, which was a symbol of black freedom, strength, and resistance. The occupation of Ethiopia united the not only the Caribbean and African blacks in Harlem, but also blacks around the world in an effort to promote black freedom. Following the invasion, the U.S. had completed a bases-for-destroyers deal with the English. This deal gave the U.S. control over many caribbean naval bases in return for old destroyers, thus the U.S. continued to seem neutral in the war. To prepare the islands for the naval bases, President Franklin D. Roosevelt sent Charles Taussig, a former molasses company owner, to learn about the islands. To show his credibility, Taussig had letters of support from Walter White who was a leader of the NAACP. On his trip to the caribbean, Taussig spoke to caribbean leaders and radicals who advised him on the matters of the islands. Not only did Taussig have to take into consideration the caribbean islanders, but also the voting black population living in New York who were paying attention to FDR’s every move. After returning, Taussig pushed FDR to initiate a caribbean policy that respects caribbean cultures and promotes the improvement of the Caribbean economy and government.

The first book of Brown Girl, Brownstones by Paule Marshall introduces the Boyce family and our protagonist, Selina Boyce. Selina lives in a brownstone house in Flatbush with her Father, Deighton, her mother, Silla, and her older sister, Ina. From the beginning of the novel, we learn that of Selina’s jealosy of Ina who is coming of age. We also learn about the the Silla’s second child, a baby boy, who died of heart problems before the birth of Selina. At home on a hot summer day, Selina talks to her father in a the sun parlor where her father received a letter informing him of two acres of land he received from his sister in Barbados. Deighton says he plans to moving back to the island where he will build a house on the acres. After talking to her father, Selina goes out to buy “Hootons” where she meets her friend, Beryl, who, like Ina, is coming of age and thus shames Selina. In the brownstone house, the Boyce family is accompanied by Suggie Skeete who has a lover every saturday night to wash away the week’s troubles. Also living the brownstone house is Miss Mary and her daughter Maritze. Miss Mary used to work for a white family and in her old age lying on the bed, all she does is recall the times she worked for the family. This nostalgia angers her daughter Maritze who believes her mother was mistreated and abandoned by the white family. Maritze prays to god and whispers “I don’t want to hear about those people…I don’t want to hear…” When Silla comes home and Deighton meets her, they argue over Deighton’s “idleness.” Silla wishes Deighton would save money for the down payment of the house, but instead he buys silk shirts and wastes his time learning about jobs he will never get. Beyond his uselessness in finances, Deighton continues to see a concubine which infuses resentment in his wife. When Deighton tells Silla of the land, Silla screams at him to sell it so they can pay off their home, but he refuses and says he will do what he pleases. Silla then states that the land is a lie which angers Deighton who teases her by saying ” you’s god; you must know.” After Deighton storms out of the house, Silla meets with her pregnant friend Virgie Farnum to whom she explains her indignation of Deighton. Virgie agrees, and explains of the hardship Deighton causes for his loving mother back in Barbados who spoiled him with love and money she didn’t have. At night, Ina tells her mother that Selina and her father were talking about the land, thus Silla seeks to confront Selina to gain more information. When she does so, Silla struggles to get Selina to speak and strikes her child. Selina tells her mother she wouldn’t mind going to Barbados with her father. This enrages Silla who screams that she was “third class,” “working harder than a man at 10 years old” and about how she begged her mother to send her to America where she would work and send money. But Silla ended up with a no good man and a brought a child in the world ” to whip [her].”

Book 2 of Brownstones, Brown Girl Begins with Selina going to Beryl’s home so the two can go to Prospect park. Their, Beryl’s father express his distaste of Deighton Boyce, calling him a “disgrace” for not knowing how to handle a family or finances. On the bus to Prospect park, Selina believes she is free of her home and troubles. At the park, the two go to the zoo, watch lovers on the grass, and see boys playing baseball. Sitting under the shade, Beryl explains to Selina how she “bleeds” and gets cramps, and how her figure is improving. Beryl says it will happen to Selina soon, but Selina objects saying that that it won’t.  Beryl says she Selina won’t understand as she is only a “kid” although Beryl is only one year older than her. Selina is ashamed and her prior feeling of freedom is gone as she is “still trapped within a hard flat body.”

There were several parts that I found particularly interesting in these six chapters. James Weldon Johnson, the same man who dealt with the conductor in the first three chapters, “counted 160 churches in 1930” Churches played a significant role in Harlem between 1900 and 1930. Previous chapters spoke of the “On to Harlem” movement and how ministers influenced blacks to move to Harlem by referring to the migration as a sort of crusade.

Churches acted as a connection to the culture that Caribbean immigrants left behind. Through churches they could preserve their customs and traditions despite living in New York and were thus referred to as “homeland societies”. This also contributed to some of the resentment between Caribbean immigrants and native blacks who believed that Caribbean blacks were not assimilating, but were holding on to their previous cultures. They felt that Caribbean immigrants’ loyalty lied with their homeland and not with America, which troubled and offended native blacks especially during the time of the First World War.

On the other hand, some Caribbean immigrants who attended black American churches were discomforted by the very emotionally expressive practices done in these churches. One American-born Caribbean, E Ethelred Brown, stated that their emotional practice “dangerously borders on fanaticism.” Ironically, churches were in some cases a unifying factor amongst blacks. Some American black denominations tended to have Caribbean ministers, while some Caribbean denominations had black American ministers. The African Methodist Episcopal church was one such church that many Caribbean immigrant ministers and a predominantly native born congregation.

The section on Marcus Garvey was also particularly interesting. Marcus Garvey was the founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association. Garvey’s idea of improvement was black unity and black purity. This sparked the unsuccessful Back to Africa movement, which operated with the idea that blacks could not fully prosper in America. They needed to fully separate themselves in order to thrive. Despite Garvey’s radical ideas, he was empowering black people. Being a part of the black race was the reason that many people were treated unjustly and couldn’t move upwards in society. While this might have felt like a weakness, Garvey presented it as the source of their strength and power. Garvey believed that they needed to preserve the purity of their race in order to maintain this strength.

Despite this, Garvey caused much harm to blacks trying to integrate into American society, and what else could you expect when Garvey claims things like deep down all whites were members of the KKK? Garvey even went as far as to meet with the Ku Klux Klan. Other black leaders like W.E.B. Du Bois tried to undo Garvey’s damage by discrediting him. He wrote that Garvey’s ideas did not reflect those of intelligent blacks. He even referred to Garvey as a fat, little, and ugly man. Unfortunately, some damage was already done, as Garvey was sometimes mistakenly associated with the NAACP instead of the UNIA. Eventually, Garvey was deported technically due to mail fraud and the Back to Africa movement did not succeed.

In 1900 there were 60,000 African Americans in the city, 5,000 of which were foreign-born. By 1930 Manhattan was home to 224,000 African Americans including 40,000 foreign-born, and Harlem had the largest population of Caribbean immigrants. Prior to the popular migration to New York, Caribbean people mostly participated in interterritorial migration. This began after many were freed from slavery and moved away from their former plantations. However, there were several immediate issues that they encountered. Due to a lack of land reform, freed slaves had no real opportunities to be landowners, but instead were stuck as laborers. Additionally, the large volume of unemployed people made it very difficult to find available jobs. Eventually between 1904 and 1914, many moved to Panama to work on the Canal. It was in the Canal Zone that many Caribbean people first encountered American-style Jim Crow laws.

At the start of World War I, Caribbean people were immigrating to New York at the same time that native blacks were migrating from the southeastern seaboard. Additionally, blacks were being pushed upward towards Harlem, pulled by the availability of homes devised by Philip Payton and other African American real estate agents. The result was a rapid peopling of a black, heterogeneous Harlem. This new and upcoming community produced interesting reactions from blacks and whites.

Many African American leaders hoped that incoming blacks from both the South and the Caribbean would align with and contribute to the goals set for the entire race, many of which involved attaining higher social class. Some looked to Caribbean immigrants as models for the “representative negro” that all members of the race should aspire to imitate. W.E.B. Du Bois wrote that the Caribbean immigrants were sensible and hardworking people and referred to them as “cultural heroes”. On the other hand, many native blacks felt threatened by the immigrants, many of whom were educated. They feared that they would compete for jobs and their place in society. To assert superiority, some native blacks would form exclusive social groups and prevent Caribbean immigrants from joining.

Examining “race” as a social construct was a new concept to me, and it was interesting to see how it applied. Native blacks and Caribbean immigrants were both categorized as “black”, however, whites tended to treat Caribbean blacks better after realizing they were not native. Booker T. Washington spoke of a man who was trying to get a hotel room and the worker who spoke to him with great resentment, but upon realizing he was a Caribbean immigrant, the worker’s resentment was replaced with respect. Claude McKay recalled a time when he did not have on him his registration card and was arrested because he believed to be a draft dodger. When a judge heard that McKay was from Jamaica he complimented the country, referred to McKay as “sir”, and dismissed his case. Additionally, two black men on the train were asked to move to a Jim Crow car by the conductor, but when the conductor heard them speak Spanish he withdrew his request and began to treat them like any other passenger. This prompted some African American leaders to encourage blacks to get ahead by learning Spanish. Some native blacks could even benefit socially when they would be mistaken as immigrants. These incidents prove that race is just another way to categorize humans, and while it is helpful in many respects, it has produced a baseless hierarchy of worth many times throughout history.

Politicians in the Harlem community did not reflect the neighborhood. They were mostly white men who rose to power using Tammany Hall, a corrupt political structure that provided kickbacks/ benefits to immigrants. In the beginning, this system was mostly offered to Irish, Jewish, and Italian immigrants, but would extend into the black/ Caribbean neighbors. Tammany Hall fought for immigrants’ right to citizenship and the right to vote, but only as a basis for the extension of power for certain politicians who believed that they could easily manipulate the immigrants for their needs. This system would weaken into the 1940’s, in which the first black politicians started to gain leeway, but it was a major roadblock for progress. Tammany Hall would try to establish its power by dividing Harlem between native blacks and Caribbean immigrants.

In response to World War I, there was a revival of nationalism and nativism, which lead to anti-foreign sentiment. Tammany Hall refined this notion to divide native blacks and Caribbeans from amassing power and maintaining their own power. The source of major conflict was job competition, since occupations for blacks were limited and Caribbeans were often preferred in comparison for being “smarter” and “more hard working.” Caribbeans also tended to separate themselves from native blacks and heavily focused on building an ethnic community. However, there was a forum in which there was communication about ideas and “the bigger picture.” This forum was called the stepladder, in which speakers would stand on a soap box and communicate/educate on a variety of issues, like race or evolution. Socialism/ Communist ideas were circulated around Harlem through these forums because under this thought everyone was equal and received the same. This notions undercut the racial split hierarchy in America.

A notable speaker in these forums was Marius Garvey who founded the UNIA. He believed in the return to Africa of all black people as a form of unification. He believed races could not live together equal, the purity of race should be m,aintained racism always is present, and that black people needed to exclusively run a country. In this account, he disregarded all ethnic divides and backgrounds of black people and this diaspora to Africa is much more of an imperialism policy than a freedom from oppression. His plan was to empower blacks from America and elsewhere to fight for their civil rights and work towards an individualized economy before the move to Africa. He was deported on a small charge in order to prevent the spreading of his radical ideas. He is now seen as a prophet in the the Rastafarian community.

People in Harlem struggled to establish their own businesses. Businesses required community support, but were very difficult to keep afloat competitively. Businesses often could not keep up to other white business. Caribbeans often ran more businesses and had a niche market in selling ethnic food. Illegal businesses, on the other hand, like the numbers game brought together the neighborhood as well as was participated in by outsiders. It provided multiple jobs like bankers and runners, and it was profitable. people would play hoping to win big, like the lottery. In this circle, the big bosses often become well known and rich. St. Clair, a women running the operation opposed to police framing people and fought for civil rights. Holstein would donate large sum of money to the community. Pompez was a famous baseball player. These black bosses would have to protect their territory from outside gangsters. like Dutch Schultz, who would try to overtake their operation.

Literature played an important component to Harlem culture. It exposes the struggle of wanting to be accepted in American culture, yet being impeded by race and by being a foreigner- Claude McKay was a well known Jamaican writer.

Overall, my favorite chapters were the Panama Canal and the Underground Enterprise Chapters. I like learning about the underbelly of society that drove change.

Adrian Horczak

People of New York

Professor Jenifer Lutton

February 18, 2015

Blood Relations Ch. 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, & 11

The book has a theme of conflict and cooperation. The black residents of Harlem formed their own social groups, lodges, and churches as a way of working together to find solutions to the hardships they faced in New York City. They struggled getting positions in low wage jobs like janitors and servants. Even if they had the credentials to work in a more favorable position, they were denied that possibility. Thus, African Americans decided to try and start their own businesses by appealing for help from a few wealthy black Americans. They worked together to make their voices heard and some were imprisoned and punished because of ideas thought to be too radical by the white American leaders. One of the best ways to get support for black civil rights was by being economically successful. The lack of access to well paying jobs did not stop them because black Americans started their own successful, although illegal businesses, running lotteries.

In addition, black Americans developed a system of patronage based on personal loyalty to deliver their votes to white Republican candidates. Some even received great rewards for being so loyal. For example, John W. A. Shaw became the Deputy Tax Assessor for Queens, the highest position held by an African American in the state. As they shifted slowly from the Republican to the Democratic Party at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century, they formed other organizations to ensure their voices were heard. They made it a priority to encourage leaders to hire blacks in professional jobs. At that time, there were no black police officers.

Feeling a sense of unity among blacks, some African Americans wanted all black people to separate from whites and unite together in Africa where they can govern themselves and provide opportunities for one another. A well-known proclaimer of this idea was Marcus Garvey. The American Revolution inspired Garvey since Americans formed their own successful nation. For many, his ideas seemed very radical and his meetings with the Ku Klux Klan made people feel suspicious of his activities and beliefs. Fearing a revolution of black inhabitants occurring, whites tried to find ways to deport the Jamaican immigrant Marcus Garvey. Therefore, they accused him of mail fraud, imprisoned him, and later deported him from the United States.

A very successful business in Harlem was the lottery. Although illegal, the lottery was the largest employer of black workers in Harlem. In addition, the entrepreneurs that ran the lotteries were respected within the neighborhood. The lottery also helped many small businesses thrive because they collected bids from customers. Popularity was very high among black Americans, but white Americans also participated in this illegal, African-American owned enterprise. Those responsible for running these lotteries pocketed between two thousand to six thousand dollars a week. They used their large sums of money to secure equal political rights for all blacks in America.

It is ironic that lotteries were outlawed when they were so popular among working class and upper class people. Today there are a lot of popular lotteries, since they became legal.

In the next chapters of Blood Relations, we no longer discuss the emigration of Africans and Caribbean immigrants to the U.S. but rather their settlement. These immigrants, finally in Harlem, begin to diffuse into the culture through various mediums. First and foremost, it is through churches, some that have been founded years prior to the immigrant wave, and some that are founded by these incoming immigrants. Other than churches, there were benevolent societies that sought to help incoming immigrants by offering jobs and housing. Beyond churches and societies, the black immigrants joined the political scene of harlem, although this scene was limited to mainly the elite financially stable and was overall still run by the corrupt Tammany Hall. One political individual, Marcus Garvey, a native of Jamaica is discussed in great detail due to his contribution to the harlem community and his notorious ideology and Pan-African plot. Furthermore, these chapters take a look at the gambling society of harlem and the wealthy bankers that capitalized on it, yet returned back to the community. Finally, the chapters discuss the contributions of Caribbean immigrants to Harlem’s newspapers, literature, arts, and history.

Chapter 4 of Blood Relations emphasizes the importance of religion in the Harlem community. Incoming foreigners, most of whom came from islands that practiced various forms of Christian religion, were attracted in masses to the available churches. One church, the African Methodist episcopal was a hub for almost 60,000 members, a portion of who were Caribbean islanders. If the available churches did not attract the Caribbean immigrants, then they would found there own, and base those churches on their home island’s practices. Churches however were not only for the practice of religion however. These churches were social clubs through which immigrants where able to communicate with other immigrants and natives. In doing so, immigrants were able to maintain a sense of their homeland and to also assimilate to the Harlem American society. Churches that were financially well-off, such as the AME, were able to further their image as social clubs by financing weekly dances for Harlemites. These dances attracted new members, but also kept current members interested and close-knit. Other institutions were also created to benefit immigrants. Labeled as “benevolent societies”, these organizations were founded to support incoming immigrants by offering jobs, housing, and community gatherings. Through such institutions, Caribbean and African immigrants were able to more easily diffuse into the American society.

Chapter 5 of Blood Relations discusses the Political scene in Harlem during the influx of Caribbean and African Immigrants. In this chapter we learn that Caribbean immigrants and the native blacks did not get along in the political scene due to differing ideologies. Specifically, native blacks believed the immigrants were too radical in their mindset and beliefs. Even if the two groups did come to a consensus, it would have made no difference considering that they did not have power in politics. People of color were not given voice as they had no representation and disallowed to have any. Still however, political figures grew in the black community, most of them however were of the black elite. Tammany hall, the local government was supremely corrupt at the time, and of course had a discrimination of blacks. However, the organization realized the growing number of possible black voters and thus sought to employ black politicians that severed their interests. However, the politicians they funded would further cause detriment as positions were given due to favoritism and nationality. Caribbean politicians would seek to avoid giving black natives positions if even they deserved it. This caused further political discourse between black natives and the incoming immigrants.

Chapter 6 of Blood Relations focuses on the political scene in the streets of Harlem. Specifically, there is a focus on the stepladder as a medium through which orators were able to express their political positions in the streets of Harlem. Due to the limited restrictions of speech on the streets, many of these orators would discuss topics unspoken off in political halls. Many would discuss the oppression of the black Americans and some would discuss socialism. Female orators even preached from the stepladder. These brave women would also speak of topics previously unspoken of, such as the rights of the black woman, and birth control. The street corner was a unique political scene. Through this medium, the identity of the orator need not be introduced, thus an audience cannot preach hatred of the speaker’s background because they do not know it. Furthermore, an audience could decide whether they disliked or liked an orator on the spot, without having to listen if they wished not to. Thus the street corner was a place only for ideas, and through the preaching of ideas, many orators rose to prominence. One such orator was Jamaican born Marcus Garvey who preached of black nationalism. The impact of the stepladder was not limited to the street corner however, as the ideas discussed led to gatherings afterwards, for example socialist gatherings, and even to organizations such as the African Blood Brotherhood. Therefore the street corner was arguably a vital and useful part of Harlem politics. The only thing stopping an individual from speaking would have been weather. Through the stepladder, unknown politicians were able to rise to power through street support and contentious yet significant ideas were able to discussed freely.

Chapter 7 of Blood Relations discuses the legacy of Marcus Garvey. Marcus Garvey was a Jamaican born immigrant who supported creating a united African community. He sought to do so for the benefit of Africans, believing that together they are powerful and can aid one another economically and politically. However, he believed that after uniting the African people, that together they must travel “back” to Africa and create their own society free of white oppression where they can rise to power as to challenge the strongest nations in the world, specifically the United States. Being a strong orator, he was actually able to gain a massive number of supporter through his preaching of basic human rights for all, and the promise that the new African society would provide such rights and all the needs for its people. He also preached that, economically, the new African nation would be equal. Garvey wanted his new nation to be run completely by Africans, thus they would have their own economy, government, press, and so on. Garvey was also a believer in racial purity. He disliked the intermixing of black people, especially the mixing of African Americans and Caribbean islanders. He even met with the Ku Klux Klan, as he understood their plight for white purity. He agreed that whites should maintain their purity, and blacks should maintain their own purity and that is why they must move to Africa. Garvey even funded a ship, the “Black Star Liner” as opposed to the White Star Liner to take him and his supporters back to Africa. In the end however, Garvey’s dream was never fulfilled as he was deported to Jamaica, technically for mail fraud. However the true reason behind his deportation was that he was actually gaining a large following and uniting the blacks of Harlem. This was seen as threatening by the white government because they found the the united blacks are dangerous to their society of oppression. Thus, to stop any possibility of an uprising, the government issued a deportation of Garvey and thus ended the dream and the unity. Although Garvey was bat-shit crazy, his overall goal in united blacks was understandable considering what was their current situation of oppression, disunity, and poverty under a white government.

Chapter 9 of Blood Relations focuses on an important part of history in the Harlem community: the numbers racket. The numbers game was similar to the lottery, in that players would choose three numbers, and if those numbers were picked at a drawing time, the player would win some money; simple, yet detrimental. This is because the game was extremely addicting to Harlemites. Harlemites would play the game weekly, spending all of their wages on the seemingly easy game in hopes of winning big money. However, rarely did any one ever win as mob bosses and bankers of the likes Casper Holstein supremely rigged the game to insure limited winners, and infinite profits. No matter however, mob bosses like Casper Holstein were benevolent bankers in that they gave back to the community. Holstein would fund community projects and would help people with financial problems. Furthermore, he would donate wealth to those struggling to make ends meet.  Through such generosity, bankers like Holstein gained massive respect from the community even if the numbers game was illegal. Racketeers also fought back against authorities and kept white mobsters, like Dutch Shultz, out of the underground Harlem economy. An example of this would be Madame Stephanie St. Claire who was one of the most powerful female bosses in Harlem. She was greatly admired in Harlem for her courage and for her opposition to the oppression blacks faced. The numbers game raises the question of whether these bosses were actually generous or rather greedy. This is because the game was addicting to many people and cost them their wages, but the mob bosses would give back to the community. I think I would regard them as benevolent because they weren’t stealing from Harlemites, but rather offered a service and sought to benefit the community.

Chapter 10 of Blood Relations discusses the impact Caribbean Immigrants had on the media in Harlem. Caribbean immigrants were famous for writing in black newspapers such as Opportunity and Negro World. These newspapers would preach the problems blacks faced in the Harlem society and would oppose the oppression of the government. More so however, they provided entertainment. Claude McKay was known for writing book reviews in newspapers, and his reviews were constantly circulated and read. Other than newspapers, Caribbean writers would write books that highlighted the struggle between immigrants and the native blacks. From these books, it seemed that native blacks had a resentment of the incoming immigrants, labeling them “monkey chasers,” and discriminating against them through jobs and housing.Some immigrant writers went somewhat too far in their views, for example Edgar Grey. He highlighted the struggle of dark skinned Caribbean Islanders and stated that black natives were discriminating against his dark skin and those like him. He states, ” If it comes to the place where, these white men’s children think they are going to deprive black men and women of representation, when they are qualified, because of the blackness of their skins, let us speak right here and now, and say that it is going to be a most bitter and vicious war.” Furthermore, Caribbean Immigrants contributed to the arts in Harlem. One of Garvey’s ex-wives,  Amy Garvey, wrote plays. Another playwright was Eulailie Spence who received an award for her play The Whipping. Caribbean immigrants also contributed to music, for example Sam Manning, introduced the calypso genre of dance to Harlem. Finally, through literature, Harlemites gained a new pride and desire of their African heritage. Author J. A. Rogers was a self-taught historian who published books discussing the past lives of Africans. His books were massively circulated and more than 20 editions for each was printed. His book One Hundred Facts About the Negro went through 18 editions in the first eight. This shows the immense interest black americans had of their past, which isn’t surprising. This is due to the fact that most black immigrants and some natives were of 3rd, 4th, or even more generations, and did not know of their African ancestry. Thus, authors like Rogers answered and sparked immense interest in black americans for knowledge about their past.

This book has presented me with a great deal of information which was previously unknown to me. Considering that I commute to Harlem almost every day, it seems right that I should learn about its past and the pasts of the residents that lived here. As I walk to school train station I will try to locate the plethora of places mentioned by Irma Watkins-Owens. I look forward to visiting the Caribbean community of Flatbush.

Starting with Chapter 4, Irma Watkins-Owens begins to truly dive into how the themes of movement and migrations (by blacks from the Caribbean, South, and Latin America) affected the development of Harlem as a unique community. Throughout the chapters she notes how the ethnic dynamics, the conflicts and cooperation between the immigrant blacks and native blacks led to the creation of Harlem being a sort of Mecca for the post-colonization era. Harlem, thanks its strong cultural roots, which were established by kinships, shared property, churches, and social clubs (the last two which were the main focus of Chapter 4), became a center for the black diaspora. Owens notes, “churches were among the fastest growing institutions shaping Harlem’s development as a black community” (57). Churches emerged along cultural lines. They were churches for native blacks, such as the African Methodist Episcopal and Abyssian Baptist churches, however the new churches were created to satisfy the new influx of immigrants from the south and Caribbean. When it came to churches, there were no strict lines of separation between natives and immigrants. A native black priest would serve a congregation of mostly Caribbean immigrants, while an immigrant could find opportunities in “historically black denominations” (59). Lines of separation did occur when it came to social institutions however. Social institutions and benevolent societies were common in the early 1900s in Harlem. There existed a wide variety of clubs and societies, and as Owens writes, “everyone belonged to something” (65). However things like culture, class and even economic status separated these clubs. An example would be the Societies of the Sons and Daughters of New York, which sought out only the best of the New York native African Americans. Other clubs were helpful, mostly for immigrants, as they would provide aid such as food and shelter. Overall these societies were based on three main ideas: “ [M]utual benefit and relief; economic and political adjustment; the perpetuation of desirable conditions in their homelands” (67).

Owens then moves on to talk about Harlem’s struggle for political autonomy. Harlem was unable to get direct political representation due to the conflicts between the immigrant and native blacks. Once the influx of immigration occurred, Caribbean peoples began to move up the political ranks, with men such as William Derrick and Adolph Howell joining other colored Democrats. The growth in immigration and population had also led to the creation of many new businesses and “ethnic based organizations” (80). These immigrants met they adversaries once America began grasp onto the ideals of Nativism. Separations occurred between native and immigrant blacks when it came to social and economical issues. Many saw the immigrants for nothing more than their refusal to naturalize. While many immigrants tried to assimilate to the native African American culture, they still maintained a strong connection to their homeland. The practices of Tammany Hall also caused strife between the groups. There would be an internal fight, as each group struggled to obtain the “[doled] out favors” and jobs by political bosses (86). It was because of these separations between native and black immigrants that Harlem failed to receive a direct representation in government. This led to terrible living conditions: “Overcrowded conditions, inadequate healthcare… high rents… prostitution…” among other things engulfed the Harlem community (91).

One of the leaders to emerge from Harlem’s growing social society and political interests was Marcus Garvey. Garvey was Jamaican born immigrant that moved to Harlem in the early 1900s. Garvey was a strong social activist and supported the ideals of Black Nationalism and Pan-Africanism. He was a stepladder speaker for his group the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), where he advocated for racial unity. Garvey was in support of something much greater than increased rights for Caribbean and native blacks. He proposed a theory of “Back to Africa,” where he depicted Africa as a safe haven and as place where all united blacks can have a fresh start. Garvey received heavy criticism for his beliefs however, and was scrutinized even by other black journalists and writers. They poked at his belief of racial purity. It was this belief that caused him to meet with the KKK, on the grounds that they shared a similar, but separate goal. While the KKK sought to create a dominant white race, Garvey and his followers believed in the creation of a dominant black race. Garvey’s plans to improve the lives of all blacks appealed to many. However, his radical actions caught the attention of the US government. His actions were seen as an attack on Nativist ideals, which grew during the WWI era. Anti-foreign sentiments raged during this time, and it was deemed dangerous that an immigrant could rise up and gain incredible support. While he was jailed and deported on the grounds of fraud, it is hard to ignore the true reasons for his exile.

In Chapter 9, Owens discusses the underground practice of numbers, an illegal lottery game, which also demonstrated the ethnic dynamics of Harlem. Bankers, who were the social and economical heads of numbers, were not only illegal bosses of the lottery, but were incredibly beneficial to the Harlem community. One such person was Madame Stephanie St. Clair. She was a renegade, and even openly expressed her connections to numbers. She worked to demolish the opposition of the Harlem blacks. She defied Dutch Schulz, a gangster who worked to take over the numbers game. She also exposed the police brutality within Harlem, which even led to the suspension of a few officers. Because of her work, she became a folk hero within the Harlem community. The next important banker was Casper Holstein. Holstein, although he kept a really low profile, made millions from numbers. Most of his money, however, he gave back to the Harlem community. Through his philanthropist work he mainly supported education and writing for blacks. Numbers represented something that unified the Harlem community, as native and immigrant blacks, and even some whites played the game. It was heavily set on trust, as players needed honest bankers to pay out if they won.

In the last main chapter, Owens discusses the writers of Harlem. The writing that came out of Harlem described what life was like within the community. Many writers utilized the dynamics between native and immigrant blacks as a basis for their stories. One such example was “City of Refuge” by Rudolph Fisher. He used the conflicts that existed between southern migrants and Caribbean immigrants to create a story about a Jamaican and North Carolina migrant. Writers not only focused on the conflicts, but also on “cross-cultural friendships” (153). They were also several Caribbean writers who utilized their own culture to create unique stories and plays. They would include the native dialect (a Caribbean English), and also music and beats such as calypso. They were other writers, such as Eric Walrond, who used their literary influence to describe the struggle of blacks within the community (156).

Overall, I enjoyed reading Owen’s Blood Relations. Her investigation into the creation of the current Harlem community is unique in its own manner. She investigates, as we discussed in class, at global (i.e. Panama), and local (naming specific streets within Harlem) levels. She does an incredible job of representing a variety of point of views. It is hard to find instances where her writing is one-sided or biased. Her progression is impeccable, and though it was much more of an informative piece, it may as well have been a novel. She clearly maps out the process in which immigrants left their homelands to move to NYC. Her examination of the people themselves is also evenly drawn and distributed. She focuses on people from both the lower and higher classes, as well as everything in between. Her writing has helped me better understand why Harlem is the way it is today. It also makes me wonder what Harlem will be like in the future.

This week we read chapters 4, 5, 7, 9, 10 and 11 of Blood Relations: Caribbean Immigrants and the Harlem Community, 1900-1930 by Irma Watkins-Owens. Chapter 7 detailed how churches, fraternal and benevolent societies, and lodges played an important role in the development of Harlem as a community. They were networks that connected the community internally and internationally. There were churches established by both people of Southern black and Caribbean black origins. There was a degree of separation between these two groups, as they were often pitted against each other and were not always on good terms. But even with the segregation Southern blacks joined Caribbean churches and Caribbean blacks joined Southern black churches. There we some organizations that were very exclusive, allowing African Americans of certain class and “native-ness” to join. All these kinds of organizations helped the community tremendously; such as buying buildings to be sold or rented, providing insurance and solidifying networks. It is interesting to see how the types of organizations multiplied over time. At first there were just Southern Black Churches but then more and more types from the Caribbean came until there were over 130. The same thing happened to the lodges and societies as they became specialized to different social classes and to women in addition to men.

Chapter 5 focuses on the political world of Harlem. As the black population in Harlem increased and became more settled, the issue of political power came up. The peoples of Harlem were divided into subgroups, which were pitted together. The complicated network of loyalties and alliances made up the political network of the neighborhood. Tammany Hall was a key player in this, and its story interested me very much. It was a Democratic political machine that represented the interests of mainly white immigrants like the Irish. This organization worked to open up New York to immigration due to its interests. As the population of Harlem became larger, they became an important target for players in the political world. Tammany Hall extended a hand to Caribbean blacks because they were immigrants too and because there were seen to have better education and skills than Southern blacks. This caused a rift between the two communities in Harlem as the Caribbean people were treated better, regardless of being “foreigners.” Afro-Caribbean people were given positions in power, while the Southern African Americans were not. I think it is important to look at things through the lens of politics so I found this section to be helpful for understanding the history of Harlem.

On the topic of politics, Marcus Garvey is an interesting person to study and is the subject of Chapter 7. He was a Jamaican-born man who became very politically involved. His ideals were based in Black Nationalism and pan-Africanism. He believed that all people of African ancestry should return to the Africa and represent their race with a nation of racial purity. Many including the NAACP viewed him as extremely radical. In 1914 he founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and established a permanent organization in Harlem. Harlem became the hub for this worldwide movement and it gained a sizable following. It also used the press, like the Negro World to gain popularity and awareness. He later created the Black Star Steamship Corporation and was arrested over a technicality concerning its advertisement. But this wasn’t the true reason he was arrested. The real reason was that he was seen as a threat because he had an image, resources, and a following. I think it very logical that a movement like this would be started, as it is a product of its age. It is also fascinating to me that this neighborhood became the center of something so important and influential for the world.

Chapter 9 focuses on the “Numbers playing game.” This was the illegal lottery, which employed the most blacks in the Harlem neighborhood. It was played openly until around the mid 1920’s. Watkins-Owens explains how these lotteries worked: “A numbers operation consisted of a banker, a group of collectors or runners who took bets from customers and perhaps several controllers who gathered the money and turned it in to the ‘bank.’” She continues to list other positions that the numbers employed. They were very complex and well organized operations and were completely underground. This brought money to the individuals in charge but also vitalized the economy of Harlem. Some bankers made large sums of money. I find it curious that these organizations were so massive but did not receive much attention. They were the largest employers in Harlem and many played the numbers but the numbers seldom received attention in the press. I am interested in how these massive operations were able to stay underground so effectively.

Chapter 10 focuses on the literary world of Harlem and the interracial relationships between native African Americans and black immigrants. These relationships were expressed in many written pieces of the time. As Harlem’s population became more prominent, the importance of race papers in New York grew in importance. Both native African American and black immigrant writers had a large impact as well. Writers like Claude McKay were supporters of cultural pluralism, which was essential in making Harlem what it was.

Chapter 11 is the conclusion of Blood Relations: Caribbean Immigrants and the Harlem Community, 1900-1930. Watkins-Owens stresses the important role of foreign-born black immigrants to Harlem, which is often times neglected. Race was not the only important factor in Harlem’s development. It was not only a “black neighborhood.” Ethnicity and the cultures of the native African Americans in addition to the Afro-Caribbean people forged the identity of Harlem. It was migrations and movement that made this all possible. After the emancipation of slaves in the Americas, projects like the Panama Canal and international shipping brought large waves of people to New York City seeking opportunity. An integral part of this whole process was the transnational networks that were developed. They allowed for people to move to and from the United States and their home countries and provided support in multiple ways. Divisions existed quite prominently at times between native African Americans and Afro-Caribbean people. Despite this churches, benevolent associations, political movements, newspapers and other organizations tied the community together and gave Harlem and extremely unique and pivotal role.

Throughout the many chapters of Blood Relations, written by Irma Watkins-Owens, the readers notice the emerging changes that take charge of the Harlem community. Many changes were underway during the years 1900 to 1930. In Chapter 4, known as Churches, Benevolent Associations, and Ethnicity, the growth and the spread of the influence of churches shows the major ways that they impacted the people of the Harlem community. As many native born African Americans and Caribbean immigrants moved to the Harlem region, many new social networks were created to form a sense of community and stability for the people. These organizations formed essential social links that helped assimilate all the colored people into the lifestyle of New York City. Over time, these groups became more specialized, as various types of people kept moving into Harem. I found it interesting that Churches became the first social organizations to become specialized for different types of people. Churches became very essential for most community members in many aspects of life. Churches became involved in all parts of the community; they helped provide many of the housing contracts for immigrants, they helped upkeep old traditions from native countries, and they helped form political connections by offering community members goals to follow. It was also interesting to me that the book mentioned that any man even slightly significant in Harlem, either native or foreign-born, was expected to be a member of one of the major lodges or fraternal orders of the community. This statement shows the major impact that these social organizations had over the community by providing gridlines and creating social connections between the most influential of the community members. The thing that I became curious about was related to the wide array of influence that the Churches seemed to have over the community. In the book, Watkins-Owens makes it clear that many of the community members in Harlem found it nearly impossible to attend church regularly due to the fact that they had to work at their jobs even on Sundays. These workers were mainly porters or elevator men, needing to work extra hours just to etch out a living in New York City. It is also interesting to note that Churches used to cater to only native born African Americans. However, as more Caribbean immigrants came to Harlem, new Churches specialized to cater to their traditions popped up in the community. This shows that social organizations were essential and considered necessary for the community to function.

Although social organizations were some of the most important foundations of the Harlem community, politics and representation in the community was equally important to the members. In Chapter 5, known as Politics and the Struggle for Autonomy, the steps that led to representation in the community and in New York City are outlined. In the first decades of living at the community, black people had no direct representation in politics of the city. As Caribbean immigrants moved into the city, new political alliances started forming in Harlem in exchange for certain favors. Overall, however, most of the black members slowly switched from the Republican Party to the Democratic Party. Slowly over time, influential men, such as Anderson and Morton, who became heads of political parties, helped improve the political position of blacks in the patronage system. Something interesting to note about politics is the development of Tammany Hall in 1786. This organization was a Democratic political machine that favored white immigrants, specifically the Irish immigrants. This organization helped bring political power and influence to many of the white immigrants. These white foreign immigrants tended to gain naturalization and citizenship quickly in an attempt to gain jobs and establish a stable lifestyle. Native and immigrant blacks, however, were slower at the process of gaining citizenship. They weren’t in a rush to gain citizen ship solely for practical reasons. I found this to be very interesting because this was a great way to assimilate Caribbean immigrants into the native African American population of Harlem. However, these immigrants seemed to fear gaining citizenship due to the possibility of losing connection with their traditional roots once they become tied in with the social organizations of Harlem. As the years went by, the local political clubs were mainly available to more influential natives and immigrants. However, these connections allowed blacks for the first time in history to start leading their community by making decisions about community-improvement projects, etc.

With the development of political clubs and institutions, many new radical ideas started to form. Of them all, Marcus Garvey serves as one of the most drastic and dangerous ideology that brings the Harlem community to a dilemma. In Chapter 7, known as Marcus Garvey “Negro Subject of Great Britain”, Garvey’s ideologies and his rise and fall are described and analyzed. After World War I, Marcus Garvey, moved to Harlem in 1916 and founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA). Garvey’s radical ideologies caused much distress in the American communities; there was a lot of opposition to his ideas. On the other hand, he had a lot of support from certain types of people. Marcus Garvey believed that there were better possibilities for the black people if they went back to their native countries. Many Americans feared Garvey’s influence on the blacks because then the employers would lose cheap laborers from their companies. Garvey gained the support of many influential blacks in the communities of America. Garvey’s methods for supporting his ideas became extreme and aroused suspicion. I found it extremely interesting that Garvey met up with the Ku Klux Klan at one point during his campaign. One of the main things that stuck out to me was the fact that Garvey was deported from the country. Apparently, it was due to the fact that Garvey had committed fraud related to his Black Star Line propaganda. However, it seems more likely that this was just an excuse for American officials to get rid of Garvey because he posed a risk to the economies of influential white people in the cities. It is also interesting to note that Garvey’s expulsion from America actually caused an outcry in America by many people in an attempt to provide him with equal treatment for the court case.

While politics and social organizations were on a public display for all the community members to see, illegal underground systems started to develop as the Harlem communities became more intricate. In Chapter 9, known as The Underground Entrepreneur, the development and impact that these illegal systems have on the communities as a whole are thoroughly discussed. One of these systems, known as “Numbers” developed within the community in the 1920s. Numbers, which was similar to an illegal lottery, in the beginning, could be played out in the open. However, police officials became aware of these economic tactics and they tried to put an end to it by making it illegal. In a Numbers operation, there was a banker, collectors/runners (took bets from people), and then controllers (returned money to the bank). Each banker would have many legal staff members who work around the clock. They provided the community directly with most of the jobs. The money that the bankers made, which was a lot, was then used as investments in Harlem property and in small businesses. Many small businesses benefitted from the help of Numbers, thus aiding the community by providing networks and economic support. I found it interesting that white gangsters even started the practice in response to what they saw in the Harlem communities. I also found it interesting that although the bankers from Numbers aided the community by supporting it, many of the community members viewed Numbers as a short-term element. Mostly poor people participated in Numbers. It is interesting to see how a community evolves over time as certain elements change in the community for the better.

As the Harlem communities developed, so did their literary arts and press. In Chapter 10, known as Harlem Writers and Intraracial Ethnicity, one of the most important things, the press, is discussed with a detailed explanation of how it impacted the community. With the press, the tensions between the native African Americans and the Caribbean immigrants are noted in their writings. New York Race papers were produced and maintained by the increasing numbers of black immigrants coming into the Harlem community. These race papers became the center stones for many immigrants to discuss their propaganda and discontent with something in society. The press became very influential in the community during the years 1917 to 1930. During the Depression, many immigrant and native writers talked mainly about the racial tensions that communities had between members. I thought it was interesting that the independent newspapers seemed to express their emotions more freely than newspapers who were owned by white influences.

In Chapter 11, known as Conclusion: Blood Relations in the Black Metropolis, we see the major impact that Caribbean immigrants had on the Harlem communities. It is interesting to note that native African Americans and Caribbean immigrants had a very tense history with one another due to racial reasons. Each group of people created their own social networks and economic systems to help them cope with the harsh living conditions of New York City. These people each formed many types of Churches that helped form goals and unity on a political level. Everyone was able to create a way to seem familiar with their new surroundings. Overall, it was very amazing to see how native African Americans and Caribbean immigrants for the first time in history encountered each other and tried to assimilate themselves into the communities in efficient ways.

With a large influx of Caribbean immigrants came a need for housing resources. These immigrants were able to achieve the housing that they needed through various means, and through collectively organizing ways of completing this task, they were able to form a community of their own in Harlem. By collectively pooling money, immigrant populations were able to purchase reasonably large pieces of real estate, thereby enabling immigrants to move in by the thousands. Once this happened, the same thing that happens when any immigrant population begins moving into an area happened in Harlem: nativist sentiments arose in people who were occupied the area first. Even though both groups were of the same race, their vastly different cultures sparked an instant rift between them. They created slanderous terms for each other, and generally made attempts to voice their dislike for each other. All this was turned on its head when it came to one thing, however. That thing was church. Despite their differences, the two groups were able to peacefully interact, as they all went to the same churches.

Politically, Harlem was quite an exciting place, as the changing demographic gave need for new types of policies, and more importantly, new representation for this new demographic. Paramount to all political goals, however, was the importance of establishing a politically autonomous Harlem that could hold its own against the rest of the city. Unfortunately, there were many hinderances to the political stability of Harlem that took years to become resolved. African American and West Indian blacks were largely not registered to vote or not naturalized citizens, respectively, so it was nearly impossible for them to get proper congressional representation. Finally, however, in 1944 Adam Clayton Powell, Jr. was elected as the first congressman of Harlem.

Marcus Garvey, an important and rather controversial figure in this era, was essentially the black equivalent of a white supremacist. Due to his connections with the Ku Klux Klan and his divisive language, he was largely disregarded and even condemned for his actions. He began the UNIA (Universal Negro Improvement Association) to, as the title of the organization suggests, improve the lives of blacks. He was also known for starting the “Back to Africa” movement in which he encouraged blacks, no matter what ethnicity they identified with, to move back to their ancestral homeland, Africa. This idea was hugely unpopular, garnering essentially no traction, as no significant population made such a move as a result.

As for controversial figures, the Gambling scene in Harlem provided many outlets for people with unsavory intentions to fulfill their desires. The numbers racket was a pervasive and totally illegal gambling game, somewhat similar to today’s lottery, that was lead by “bankers” as they were called in the day. This game put lots of money in the pockets of these few bankers and, collectively, took money right out of the pockets of community members. It really is hard to say whether or not this was a beneficial practice. On one hand, notorious numbers bankers like Casper Holstein were extremely generous donators who arguably made contributions that were invaluable to the success of the community. However, if you look at how his money was obtained, it is impossible to ignore the fact that the money he was using came right out of the pockets of the people he was claiming to help! This glaring contradiction is something that should be carefully inspected before making a final judgement on the efficacy and ethicality of his actions. Personally, I take the stance that his actions were selfishly motivated, and this is proven by his reaction to his opponents who pointed out his illegal methods of obtaining his wealth. While he had mansions on Long Island and a car collection, the community-members whose money he stole were having a hard time even finding suitable work.

This weeks chapters, though extensive we’re also quite intriguing. They opened my eyes to some of the great history in this section of the city that I’ve been blindly living in for the past couple of months. Earlier in the book, the importance of social institutions was touched upon when talking about the construction of the Panama Canal, but chapter 4 really went in depth to elaborate upon this idea. Immigrating to a new country was not easy by any means for most Caribbean immigrants, especially considering all the resentment they received from native African Americans. However, there were a few places where the two groups got along seamlessly. One such social institution of particular importance was church. It makes sense that a strong unifying theme like religion can bring together such a broad group of people that may be of the same race, but have entirely different cultures. In fact, religion even helped a lot of the newly immigrated Caribbeans adjust to a new life in the states. I know from personal experience that Church can be a huge connection for many families. We would associate with people from all kinds of backgrounds, sometimes establishing permanent ties, and even going out afterwards to breakfast or some other event.Its just reassuring to think that admist all the antagonism between native and immigrant blacks, there were some areas where they could come together and socialize under a common theme.

Though I’ve learned a small bit about Marcus Garvey from history classes, it was really interesting to learn a great deal more about him and some of his ideals in chapter 7. He strongly advocated for a unified African movement. By many, he was seen as crazy, but to others, Garvey was seen as a powerful idealist with a plan for total African equality. However, I do believe that there is a fine line that must be drawn and this line was crossed just a few too many times by Garvey. I had never heard, nor would I have ever imagined, a man who advocated so strongly for African equality such as Marcus Garvey to cooperate with the Ku Klux Klan. In fact, some of what professor Lutton had told us in class actually startled me a good bit. I understand that Garvey had similar goals to the KKK,  but to identify with them is just not a very good look. The KlKK is known for violence and hatred towards Garvey himself, amongst other Africans, so surely there were other groups whom he could have chosen to collaborate with. Nonetheless, Garvey’s plan ultimately failed with his deportation back to Jamaica. In the end, he had a nice idea with a strong following, but I don’t think it ever could have actually become more than just that; an idea. As someone mentioned in class, there were just too many African Americans who were multiple generations old and felt stronger ties toward America, despite its many shortcomings, than they did towards Africa.

The only other chapter I really want to talk about is chapter 9. This was by far my favorite chapter. It is unfortunate that there was so much corruption associated with gambling due to its outlaw, because it seemed for the most part to have a very positive effect on the community. Especially in the case of Casper Holstein. Holstein was an avid contributor to philanthropy everywhere, from motivating young blacks to develop their abilities as writers to paying for college students’ expenses to sharing some of the joy with the hungry around the Holiday season. This system benefited not only all those involved in the “bank” but also the community, including a lucky middle class worker with high aspirations for the future who would occasionally win. One line that particularly struck out to me though  was “It is ironical but true that Negroes build things only to have them taken away and exploited by the white man.” This seemed very much the case with the numbers game that so powerfully influenced economics in Harlem. Perhaps if the game wasn’t outlawed, there could have been more protection placed upon the banks from mobsters to foster the business. Still, it was nice to read about some of the bankers who would stand up against the abuse of gangs such as did St. Clair. Her confidence and courage encouraged her business to grow and help all those involved without fear, Obviously the business helped mostly the wealthy bankers, but I feel that the overall positive effect it had on the community as a whole outweighed the negatives. Harlem has had quite a unique history that I had never previously known about but will now begin to recognize as I walk along its streets. The land I walk on now was and still is to an extent the cultural center for various different immigrant groups amongst which are the Caribbeans who played an integral part in forging Harlem’s history.

Religion played a major role in the lives of Caribbean immigrants and native African Americans. Churches became a social center for immigrants and natives alike. Due to this, a second generation Caribbean is more likely to marry a native born African American. What’s interesting is that when this occurs the native would modify the traditions of the Caribbean immigrant. Therefore, places that bring immigrants and natives together accelerates the process of assimilation. There are also many churches in Harlem, one in particular is the Black American Church. This church challenged and modified the culture of Caribbean immigrants. Black churches, however, were also viewed as a business rather than a place of worship. This is contributed to the fact that when compared to Caribbean churches it is far more dominant economically and politically.

Churches were not the only institution that had an impact in the Harlem community. Harlem’s  fraternal and benevolent associations which consisted of mainly members from the Caribbean and black American communities also played a role in Harlem. These institutions “provided mutual aid and also helped establish an individual’s social position and identity.” One particular association is called The Society of the Sons of New York. They recruited men in society that possessed the most respectable traits. For example, politicians, real estate speculators, and professionals. Benevolent associations provided members with health and death benefits. Fraternal orders are similar to benevolent associations because they “de-emphasize one’s ethnic background while promoting racial solidarity, self-help, and self-reliance.” Churches, benevolent associations, lodges and fraternal orders assisted Caribbean immigrants and southern migrants by familiarizing them with the community.

As more immigrants started to settle in Harlem a man by the name of Marcus Garvey appeared to spread his radical ideals. Garvey was born in Jamaica and founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) in Jamaica in 1912. UNIA was created to create a black nation in Africa by convincing African Americans to return to Africa. In 1916, Garvey settled in New York and created a UNIA chapter in Harlem. This chapter promoted the ideals of social, political, and economical freedom for blacks. In 1918, Garvey published a newspaper called Negro World to convey his message. This posed a threat to nativists because the press was transmitting radical ideas. African Americans also disliked Garvey because he was considered radical and they didn’t want to be grouped with him. In 1919, Garvey and UNIA launched the Black Star Line which was a shipping company that established trade between Africans in America, the Caribbean, South and Central America, Canada and Africa. The Black Star Line lead Garvey to be jailed due to mail fraud in 1923. In 1927 he was released and deported back to Jamaica. Garvey became the inspiration for black nationalism and he inspired other leaders such as Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr.

Other than religious institutions and political figures, there was another side of Harlem. Harlem was being overrun by numbers. These numbers or the “Number Playing Game,” became Harlem’s economy. The number operation consisted of a banker, collectors, controllers, and a legal staff. This was a planned out team because each role is in charge of a part of the operation. For instance, the collector is the ones who take the bets from customers, the controllers are the ones who gathered money and turned it in to the bank, and finally the legal staff is there to ensure the safety of all employees. The banker is the head of the operation because he arranges all political affiliations and pays all fines imposed on his employees. In order for a banker to be successful, he or she must have a good reputation. This means that the banker has to deal fairly and give back to the community. To play the numbers game, a player would pick a set of digits between 000 and 999. If they chose correctly they would win, if not then they lose. It is similar to the lottery we have today. The numbers game wasn’t limited to only African Americans. There are also white New Yorkers who play and give their money to a colored collector. This is interesting because when it comes to a game blacks and whites are treated equally, however, in reality whites come out superior. Race is more of a social implementation rather than a biological one.

The differences that caused discrimination between blacks and whites were also the causes of the animosity between the different ethnicities that were considered part of the black race. In the last few chapters, there were many interesting people mentioned that had different reactions to this situation. There were others that managed to build enterprises while not being affected by the divide at all. People that stood out to me were Marcus Garvey, Claude McKay, Madame Stephanie St. Clair, and Casper Holstein.

The idea for the mass return to Africa by Marcus Garvey was astounding. He did manage to get a large following that agreed with this idea, and to be proud of being African. It would also take a sane person a huge amount of courage to meet with the Klu Klux Klan, but I am guessing that fear was the smallest thing in his mind when he was closing in on the confrontation. Leading such a huge population to Africa would lead them back to an imperialistic government with there still being a lower class feeling suppressed. Creating a black-controlled economy however, was a great idea that was somewhat done with by the bankers in the numbers game.

Claude McKay was a Jamaican writer that wrote many pieces about alienation, both from native white Americans, and native black Americans. The first generation of black immigrants cared more about ethnic identity than race, thus creating the establishment that McKay found so unwelcoming. However from these experiences he started getting closer to other black ethnicities. Whether Caribbean or native black, they were still persecuted and greatly threatened in the race riots of 1919. He moved around America with a unit of many other black Americans that would protect each other from attacks. From his books, it is understood that through this experience and many others like this one, there was some level of fellowship that he established with the black community.

During the early 1900s the numbers game, or policy, established a new way of gaining economic capital. This game of chance was so irresistible that even the white community participated in it. There was a quote about white betters paying their debts to black collectors, which was an unbelievable idea at that time period. It was however unfortunate that such instances would only happen in policy, an illegal gambling ring. The profits from the bankers went towards so many different projects that improved the Harlem community. Madame Stephanie St. Clair, in order to protect her business, exposed police corruption to the public. The audacity she had when she confronted the Shultz gang was unbelievable.

Another influential banker was Panama Francis. He used his winnings to start the era of the “Negro League” and he became a major proponent of black involvement in baseball and boxing. The greatest patron however seems to be Casper Holstein. He was a patron of the arts and donator to schools, charities, political organizations, and students. Not only did he do that for the Harlem community, he also did it for the people in the Virgin Islands, and his native country Grenada. It is no wonder that he was praised as a messiah with all the help that he provided to the people that surrounded him. It was a shame that gangsters took him out of the numbers game, and that he eventually ended up as a poor man.

I think that these people deserve more recognition for what they have done to shape New York. Yes, some were considered radical, and others gained their profits through illegal means, but that should not define whom they were. Holstein funded The New Negro, and he also probably funded the education of many intellectuals that were prominent during the mid 1900s. The impact that these businesspeople have had is something that I am considering to research. Starting with so little yet being able to do so much is very inspiring.

“Blood Relations” by Irma Watkins-Owens followed a chronological order of the diaspora of the Caribbean islanders, especially their migration to Harlem, which gradually became one of the most culturally rich centers in the nation. Watkins through her writing, illustrates a timeline for the reader, which briefly enlightens the reader about the pivotal past events. Although there were numerous events leading up to the migration of Caribbean islanders to the U.S., there were even more issues when they finally arrived to the U.S. Unfortunately, the struggle didn’t end when they entered America, it actually just began. Although there were many motifs throughout the book, the most prevalent was the motif of social organization. Throughout the whole book, the black individuals suffer greatly, but they do so while being together. In chapter four, the importance of social networks wasn’t stated for the first time, it was actually emphasized again. Even before settling down, these individuals were constantly conglomerated into one unit, especially due to their nationality. This type of organization was not completely formed by some other higher power, but it was actually somewhat formed by the individuals themselves. And, the reason why they did this was simple, to survive. During these times, many hardships were present, especially economic hardships, thus the best solution was for the individuals to aid each other, because they were all in the same boat. Many instances were mentioned in the book, when the individuals aided each other due to their mutual suffering they faced. The very basic example was family support amongst their kin, which not only gave them hope and motivation, but helped them financially by working hard in horrible conditions such as the Panama Canal, just so that their family could go to the “land of opportunity.” Another example were the individuals that gave newly arrived immigrants a place to stay in Harlem, helping them in an extremely difficult time of their life. These actions of social conglomerations were extended, as mentioned in chapter four, into benevolent social organizations, fraternities, and most importantly churches.

These newly arrived Caribbean individuals faced hostility immediately when they arrived to America. The hostile forces included the black nativists along with the other population of individuals that emphasized racial segregation. These individuals were “cornered” by all the opposition, however, “cornered” with them were also the other Caribbean individuals, which allowed they to form bonds due to their mutual unfortunate predicaments along with the fact that they were the same kin/nationality. Due to the pre-existing ideas of segregation, and social connections, Marcus Garvey took an extraordinary approach albeit radical and extreme, but logical. Garvey’s approach acknowledged the importance of the social relationships that the black individuals have, which has allowed them to survive. Garvey publicly expressed his ideas, and let it be known to everyone explicitly that, they can form an utopia back in Africa, due to the current existing relationships the individuals have today. During these times of hardships and impassable obstacles, the suppressed individuals can only rely on its kin, because they were empathetic of their current situation, because they were “cornered” to the same “corner.” During these times, as mentioned in chapter five, the black individuals faced numerous political hardships. Comprising the majority of Harlem, these individuals still couldn’t bring about change due to the corruption that existed politically. Very few were capable of having their voice heard, but most of the times it was deemed irrelevant by the corrupt government. However, one of the strongest tools was the press, as mentioned in chapter ten. The press served as their most reliable medium to get their ideas across to the suppressed public living in Harlem. During these times, prominent writers such as Claude McKay, who publicized the true conditions of America, depicting it as a place that is both filled with opportunities and hardships. Example of these hardships included the corrupt government, which led to numerous other issues due to their inability to bring about reform. During these difficult times, the immigrant individuals were unable to secure adequate jobs, and were unable to voice their opinion, due to the fear of deportation because of their illegal actions getting into the country. These adversities were circumvented again, through the utilization of their social networks and support.

Reversing back all the way back to when the immigration between nearby islands began in the Caribbean, it was evident that the sole purpose was to improve their economical status. Following the dissolution of colonization, the Caribbean individuals sought to improve their financial standing the only way they knew how…by acquiring land. However, this was nearly impossible considering the supreme aristocrats had all the power, even though the colonization era was over. This brings us to the economical struggle in Harlem, which emphasizes the ongoing endeavors of these individuals. Most of the Caribbean islanders sharing this unfortunate predicament, brought about a strong social bond as mentioned many times previously in the book. Soon the “Numbers playing game,” came into effect, which was much like an illegal lottery. However, the importance was purely altruistic, unlike the definition of lottery we know today, which means if you win, you are then entitled to an extravagant life. This “lottery” was meant to help Harlem as a community, along with the individuals part of that community. Key examples of the leading altruistic figures that aided Harlem during this troublesome time were: Casper Holstein, Panama Francis, and Cuban Alexander Pompez. The individuals known as the bankers aided Harlem tremendously, and showed how social connections were so important for these individuals during this time.

The whole book comes down to the recurring motif of the development and utilization of these important social organizations amongst these alike national/kin individuals. The “numbers game” was deemed illegal, but this didn’t impede the black individuals, because they had no other better alternative. These individuals relied on each other to get through this troublesome time, and they connected so seamlessly because of their “Blood Relations.” These individuals with their similar situations and hardships, shared a bond because they were the same kin, nationality, and race. These defining characteristics form a relationship that was just as important as any other blood relation because these social conglomerations embodied the supportive families they needed. It all comes down to the numbers of individuals that played a vital part in this hectic game of life that each individual had to go through. It all depended on the alliances between the people, which was their only hope to get through this game of life. The whole social network was greater than the individuals that comprised it.

By: Mohamed Mohamed

After completing the book Blood Relations I began to ponder on the chapters. There were chapters that were somewhat a review and others that were just inspiring. However, the one chapter that I could not stop thinking about was chapter 9.

Chapter 9 of Blood Relation was about Harlem’s involvement with the ‘numbers game’. The numbers game can be compared to lottery; people were supposed to guess a three digit number that would win them a grand prize. This gambling business was illegal at the time and police were sent to Harlem to suppress it. Bankers, who often times kept their identity hidden to avoid arrest, controlled the ‘numbers game’. However, after successfully growing their business ‘underground’, the numbers game became very common despite its illegality. The bankers made a lot of money and therefore were able to influence people in office. They became very powerful individuals because the game gained tremendous popularity. With their money, bankers hired African Americans to help them. They also helped the African community in other ways. By investing their money in Harlem properties and businesses, bankers helped raise the community’s expectations about economic progress (p137). The idea was that they provided jobs and other opportunities for the African American community and at the same time the community gave back by further growing their business.

When I finished reading this chapter, I got the impression that these bankers were seen as the ‘good’ guys. As though saying what they were doing for Harlem helped the community greatly. However, what I notice is the bankers taking advantage of the community to grow their illegal business. The Bankers give part of their money back to the community and in doing so it is their way of flaunting their support. It shows that they care for the community and the people. However, this is all a businessman with a despicable business strategy. It is a strategy to use money to gain the respect and trust of Harlem and then in return increase loyal customers. All of it is a façade to keep the people playing the lottery game and help further grow their business.

The odds of winning the ‘numbers game’, like any gambling game, is very low. A person has a 1/1000 chance of guessing a three-digit number correctly. If a game requires a dollar to play and the winner gets 100$, that means for every 1000 players only one will win. The banker will collect 900$ and give the “winner” 100$. If you run the simulations in any case, you will find that the only true winner is the banker. Yet the book explains that ‘numbers game’ was very popular in Harlem community.

Today the lottery industry is one of the largest giants. From the 44 states that allow lottery, people spent an estimate of 68$ billion in 2013. People cannot seem to stop playing lotto. This is so because it is addictive and also because it is encouraged. Lottery is run by the state and in their advertisements playing lotto is portrayed as a way to give back to the community. For example, many lottery ads claim that a certain portion of the lottery money will be given towards education. Therefore, people are fooled to play in hopes of winning and in thinking that they are giving back to the community by playing. “Money in state budgets tends to move around a lot” so trying to focus money on one thing is nearly impossible. For example, North Carolina used 100$ million of lottery money to construct schools. However, this did not mean that the school construction budget has increase 100$ million more because while that money was flowing in, other money sources are flowing out. A portion of income taxes used to go to the school construction budget but that tax money went away and was substituted with lottery revenue (Oliver).

The lottery gives people hope. However, this hope is nothing but a façade. People in Harlem saw the ‘numbers game’ as an opportunity for “economic progress”; they saw it as hope (p137). Hope for better lives, hope to improve their circumstances, hope to finally compete with the white man, hope for progress but sadly it provided none of that. Lottery does nothing but change the course of money circulation. What Harlem has done is give this power to a handful of people and expected that the money stay circulating in Harlem. Now, some might claim that these individuals proved to be responsible because they did circulated the money in Harlem by investing in Harlem properties and businesses. Lottery money may directly improve one situation but it is at the same time indirectly harming and creating a more difficult situation somewhere else.

Finally, I would like to share this video that helped me in my mini research on lottery: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9PK-netuhHA

A common theme throughout Blood Relations was heavily focused upon in chapters four and five. This theme is that everyone belongs to something. In chapter four, we were introduced to the many different religious sects, benevolent societies and community gatherings that helped establish an identity for many of the incoming Caribbean immigrants and native southern blacks. I had some idea about the religious sects prior to reading this text as many different migrating peoples formed small communities based around religion all throughout history. What was completely new to me were all of the societies and brotherhoods that were at the disposal of many immigrants. To focus on a few, there were a couple societies focused on different states. Some examples were the Sons and Daughters of New York and the Sons and Daughters of Virginia. These two societies provided many southern migrants with different benefits, but they were both fairly discriminatory. For the Sons and Daughters of Virginia, members had to have been a Virginian by “birth or parentage” to become a part of the brotherhood. To me, this uniting of southern migrants felt like a way of native blacks trying to compete with Caribbean immigrants. By the late 1920s there were already many fraternities based around Caribbean countries of origin, such as the Bermuda Benevolent Society and the Grenada Mutual Association. These groups definitely did not want native blacks as members, leaving many southern migrants searching for their own source of community.

Although native blacks and Caribbean immigrants found it very easy to unite amongst themselves along ethnic and cultural backgrounds, both parties never could cross over and come together over political grounds. Differing political ideas did plenty to keep Harlem scrambled, but the gerrymandering of voting districts didn’t help and the outright refusal to allow some people to vote only worsened the situation. Something that came across as completely idiotic to me was the lack of effort to recruit native blacks to vote, at first. Many of the political machines that, at one point, ran New York did all that they could to indoctrinate incoming European immigrants and have them vote for their parties. Yet, there were plenty of Harlemites who were ready and willing to side with certain Tammany Hall politics, but since they were black, they were turned away at the voting booths.

Skipping ahead a couple of chapters, I would like to talk about the lottery. The New York State lottery that millions participate in weekly did not begin until 1967. It was only the third modern US Lottery at the time, behind Puerto Rico and New Hampshire. As discussed in chapter nine, a betting game called “numbers” or “policy” was blowing up Harlem. People from all different walks of life would chip in their spare change in hopes of having their random number come up big and being able to walk away with a few dollars. Now, these betting rings were not necessarily legal, and for the most part, they weren’t run by the friendliest of people, specifically Dutch Schultz. Yet, many of the Harlem bakers who headed various numbers rings, such as Alexander Pompez and Casper Holstein, did so with good intentions. Pompez, known mostly for his owning of a local New York Cuban baseball team, supported many communities with his athletic endeavors. He built sporting complexes for his community and even bought the Dyckman Oval, one of the largest sports arenas in New York. Casper Holstein gave away a lot of his money to the community as well. Holstein would donate hundred of baskets of food and gifts at Christmastime to many different charities while also giving money to the UNIA. Select individuals no longer run lotteries illegally, but many of these bankers’ actions had a significant impact on our lottery today. A large portion of the NYS lottery earnings goes to supporting our school systems, mirroring the many men and women who were put through college on “numbers” winnings.

Ch. 4

Chapter 4 discusses the role that churches and other associations played in Harlem’s development and community building. Churches were becoming the fastest growing institutions because they were attracting large numbers of newcomers and current residents. As a result, they became the social centers of immigrant communities. Through Caribbean immigrant congregations and American black congregations, there was some intersection between the two ethnic groups. This was because members of one group usually participated in the others’ activities and even celebrations. These churches also served to perpetuate the traditions of immigrants’ home countries (including weddings and funerals). Clergy used the congregations and the immigrant community as a base for leadership. For example, pastors were politically active; however, some criticized them saying that they turned the church into a business. Women played an important role in the church, such that congregations that did not have many women often failed to thrive. Fraternal and benevolent associations emphasized immigrants’ social positions and identity. They also aimed to stabilize life and promote upward mobility for immigrants. The fraternal associations, especially, often afforded prestige to their members. Some fraternal associations (like the Society of the Sons of New York) only accepted members native to certain areas. These associations provided sick and death benefits at a time when insurance companies refused to extend coverage or provided very limited coverage to blacks.

I found several interesting points in this chapter.

The author mentions that “membership [in a lodge or fraternal order] usually conferred a large, automatic constituency for anyone aspiring to leadership” (56). It was interesting to see how one could grow a “fan base” just by joining a club. It just served to elevate the fact that these associations were tickets to mobility and prestige.

It was written that native African-American congregations had Caribbean immigrants in (often) high positions such as bishop. I originally had the impression that both groups were mutually exclusive in the area of religion. It seems like that is not the case and that the relationship between native and foreign-born blacks is even more complex than I originally thought.

The services that black Americans conducted in their churches “challenged and broadened” the experiences of Caribbean immigrants. For any immigrant coming to a new country, he/she will always go through a learning experience. In this case, it is perfectly understandable that the black Americans’ so-called “shouting churches” shocked black immigrants. This reminded me of how my parents would always tell me stories about what they learned when they first came to Canada and then (with me) to the United States. They would say that the things they saw “broadened” (the exact same word) their experiences when they first came here. So, I connected with this part of the chapter on a more personal level.

One thing that I found shocking (yet somewhat amusing) was the restrictions present in benevolent associations and how this contributed to their so-called “clannishness” (66). For example, the future president of the woman’s auxiliary of the United Sons of Georgia was “disgraced and ousted” just because she was born on the “boundary line of Georgia.” Yet, she lived in Georgia throughout her childhood. This seems somewhat harsh to me. However, these actions make sense: These groups are very tight-knit and exclusive. They seem to have the goal of elevating their (for, obviously, lack of a better word) “native-ness,” such that anyone not from their native land is considered an intruder.

Ch. 5

Chapter 5 describes the struggle of Harlem residents to achieve a degree of political autonomy. Harlem had a tense political atmosphere because of a structure based on alliances and political antagonisms. Politics were based on a system of patronage. Some people (like Ferdinand Q. Morton) were able to rise to positions high enough to improve the political position of blacks. However, they made little progress in these positions. There was eventually a shift in Harlem from the Republicans to the Democrats. This was because the native black leadership of the Republican Party was not particularly welcoming of foreign-born blacks. Some immigrant and native blacks cooperated with each other to gain recognition for their race. They preferred racial solidarity to ethnic solidarity. There was a greater awareness of Harlem’s diversity, particularly because there were more Caribbean people visible on the streets. There was also a growth of new business centered on the import and export of Caribbean products as well as more ethnic-based organizations. In the post-war years, there was a negative view of foreign-born blacks by native blacks. This may have been the result of a growing tide of nativism during and after World War I as well as the Red Scare. Not many (“a negligible number” of) Caribbean immigrants were qualified to vote. Citizenship was often viewed practically, as a means of improving one’s economic and social standing. Another reason is that the Caribbean immigrant felt right at home here in the United States with the presence of people from his/her own home country. Thus, naturalization was also seen as unnecessary and meant very little to most. Despite this, some already-naturalized professionals made progress in Harlem’s political system. For example, they succeeded in integrating the district clubs. However, Harlem’s subordinate political position contributed to tense relations between native-born and immigrant blacks. This was reinforced by a 1917 redistricting that weakened Harlem even more.

I was surprised by how tense relations were between black Republicans and Democrats:

“During local political campaigns, mobs in San Juan Hill knocked Tammany Hall supporters from their stepladders and wagons, pelted some with rotten cabbage and fruit, and ran others from the street corners” (77).

Although this all seemed a little to extreme to me, it serves to highlight the animosity that many blacks felt toward each other. Maybe, it was attributed to feelings of betrayal considering the initial emphasis on racial solidarity. Did they feel betrayed by the fact that some of their “own” defected to the other party?

However, later in the post-war years, we see shifts toward the other end in terms of racial solidarity:

“There was a causal connection between the American attitude toward foreigners in general and the American Negro’s attitude toward the West Indian Negro” (81).

Now, it seems that the focus is on ethnic solidarity rather than racial. When speaking about Marcus Garvey, critics focused on his “intrusive foreign status” (81). This nativist attitude may have stemmed, not from fear but, from the notion that immigrant blacks were taking away native blacks’ opportunities for advancement.

Ch. 7

Chapter 7 talks about Marcus Garvey and the race versus ethnicity issue that surrounded his activities. Garvey initially came to America to raise funds for an educational institute. However, he eventually ended up establishing an organization called the Universal Negro Improvement Association (or UNIA) in Harlem. He established this organization to provide a channel for improvement for blacks. Garvey himself was acknowledged by many to be an excellent orator, well-known for his “militant discourse.” The Negro World was one of the UNIA’s publications. It was self-supporting and hired numerous black workers in Harlem in a time where these same people could not get any jobs. However, critics of Garvey used his West Indian/non-U.S. citizen status against him. For example, W.E.B. du Bois described the UNIA as a “West Indian movement.” Numerous government departments sought for an excuse to imprison and/or deport him. The criticism of Garvey became so sharp that some in the black press resorted to name-calling and derogatory remarks. This grew even more after Garvey’s meeting with the Ku Klux Klan, an organization that stirred negative emotions in the African-American community. Garvey was eventually imprisoned on a single count of mail fraud; however, many (including his harshest critics) believed that this was too severe a penalty for so simple a charge. He was eventually deported back to Jamaica in 1927.

I am surprised at the lengths that the government went through to have Garvey arrested. Having informants following him and tracking his every move seems a little too extreme. However, it seems that this was (in the eyes of the government) the sensible thing to do, given his reputation for “militant discourse.” It seems that he was seen as a threat to the stability of the country and to some people’s power. Maybe there was fear of revolution among blacks? I understand Garvey’s slogan of “Back to Africa.” He may have been trying to promote unity using common roots. However, it seemed to backfire as it instead divided many people.

Speaking of this division, I was also surprised at how the issue surrounding Garvey divided people along ethnic lines. Originally, we saw an emphasis on racial solidarity. However, it seems that the issue with Garvey made this seemingly nonexistent. With all the name-calling and bickering, I found it hard to believe that there was once a semblance of racial solidarity.

Ch. 9

Chapter 9 describes what was considered an illegal activity yet has been regarded as a social phenomenon in early-1900s Harlem: the “numbers” or “policy” game. In this game, the player took a chance that they could pick a series of three digits that would match the same set of three numbers appearing anywhere (most likely, a combination of the win, place, and show bets at a local racetrack). The player got a “hit” if this set appeared at the agreed-upon location. The heads of the numbers operation (the bankers) were in a position to make good money because hits were relatively rare. However, the bankers actually invested the money they received into Harlem property, charities, and other ventures. This was because those betting expected the bankers to put the money into a worthwhile cause. The game was banned in 1901 but was revitalized around 1914 by immigrants from Cuba and Central America, where the game was popular. Its popularity was grounded in poor economic conditions in Harlem. The thought of winning a huge sum of money compelled many to play. Some of the larger bankers, like Stephanie St. Claire and Casper Holstein, were huge economic, social, and political forces in Harlem. In the press, there was inconsistency in reporting about numbers (for example, in using the names of bankers in articles). It is also worth mentioning that white bankers were attacked freely. In the end, however, it seems that numbers only helped the black bankers, as they received all the money and were the only ones who held enough influence in the community.

Numbers reminds me of today’s lottery. People pick a series of numbers in the hopes that the numbers will be drawn. However, few win because (like numbers) the “chances of winning are [very slight]” (138). People who play put in millions of dollars into lottery tickets, only to never get any of it back. The only difference between today’s lottery and numbers is that today’s lottery is legal and more centralized. This was a comparison that came to my mind while I was reading. I was surprised by the similarities that I thought of.

The seriousness (and sometimes outlandishness) of the numbers game was something that struck me. The author mentioned that a banker by the name of Panama Francis “kept his money in nail kegs and suitcases in a cellar guarded by three Belgian police dogs” (139). It is also mentioned that the money he received as a banker enabled him to loan “the government of Grenada $500,000, on which he collected 4 percent interest” (139).

While I was reading this, another thought came into my head: We don’t usually consider people participating in illegal rings as having “unselfish generosity” (144). To me, numbers seems different from any other illegal activity I have studied in history. Here, the ultimate goal of those controlling it is positive. The bankers contribute their money toward worthwhile causes. We have St. Clair with her crusades against police harassment and brutality and Holstein with his generosity toward many causes, including the arts. I thought that this was noteworthy given the negative reputation that people running illegal activities have.

Ch. 10

Chapter 10 discusses the role writers played in recounting and even affecting intraracial relations in Harlem. Much of the writing during this period focused on the experiences of various groups, including those of immigrants. Some focused on forms of protest in response to various community matters. Others (like Claude McKay) focused on race consciousness and identity. Still, others (like Rudolph Fisher focused on stereotypes surrounding black immigrants. Immigrants also made many contributions to a “New Negro” literary Renaissance. Some of these writers included George Reginald Margetson, Eulalie Spence, and Amy Ashwood Garvey. Claud McKay (like some others) was connected to the press through their writings in numerous publications. J.A. Rogers emphasized black history in his writings, especially in his book, From Superman to Man. Amy Jacques-Garvey subscribed to the feminism of the era, demanding equal opportunity for women. Thus, the writings of the era not only focused on race issues but also the diversity of the time as well as protests for equal rights.

It was stated that, in McKay’s Home to Harlem, the main character realized that his identity “has been redefined for him by his fellow blacks as well as by white Americans” (151). To me, this does not only apply to black immigrants of the era but also to all immigrants of any era. There is a certain identity (i.e. stereotype) that an immigrant from a particular place is expected to subscribe to. Although this expectation was more open in the past, I believe that it still exists today albeit subconsciously in the minds of people.

It was stated that immigrant columnist Edgar M. Grey wrote a piece called “Dr. Pickens Is Too Black” to protest color divisions among African-Americans. Although the title would be considered (very) crude humor today, it was certainly a serious issue back then. I was shocked by the title when I first saw it. (I actually read it twice to make sure I read it correctly.) However, this reaction is due in part to the fact that if this were written today, it would ignite a firestorm of controversy. However, back when it was written, it seems to have been acceptable and appropriate for the issue Grey was discussing.

Ch. 11

The author uses chapter 11 to give the reader a summary of the findings presented throughout the book: all the way from the influx of Caribbean immigrants in Harlem to Harlem politics to the writings of the New Negro. The author says that although interactions between native blacks and foreign-born blacks did not necessarily lead to integration between the two groups, it did serve to provide a platform for the exchange of ideas and institutions that made Harlem a center for blacks.

Throughout the book, I noticed several ideas that were being repeated, especially that of kinship networks. It served to show how the experiences of both native and immigrant blacks paralleled each other in some way or another. Native-born and immigrant blacks are not entirely different from each other. They have shared the same experiences and share even the same roots. It is true that there has not been a true integration of both groups, and there is still some animosity. However, it can be said that the interactions of both of these groups with each other have led to a positive exchange of ideas that has profoundly changed the dynamics of their relationship.

Overall, I was pleased with this book. The author presented the arguments and evidence in a concise and interesting manner. I appreciated the use of stories to help the reader visualize some of the points that were made and the events that occurred. I also liked how each individual topic was separated into its own chapter instead a single time period per chapter (like in other history-related books). I believe that this allowed the reader to concentrate on one topic per chapter and learn the details associated with it rather than be confused by a hodgepodge of topics per chapter. In conclusion, I really enjoyed this book.

As the book progressed, Blood Relations begins to take a deeper look into the political, economic and social status of African-Americans and Caribbean people living in Harlem. Ch 4 showed the power that churches, benevolent societies and fraternal orders had. Political mobility began with the church because at the time darker skinned men and especially women were not allowed to have a large say in politics. I thought it was interesting to see the development of the residents in Harlem as they came together to push for having a political voice to represent their interests. Amongst the differences they faced, it marked a transition and represented the growing power of the community.

Marcus Garvey emerged as a great voice in the ’20’s in Harlem. I personally don’t recall learning about him previously, but I found his ideas (even though a bit radical) to be very interesting. Ch 7 explored his push for this “back to Africa” idea, which in my opinion made sense logically but would fail practically speaking. The idea of bringing everyone of African decent back together to live on their own terms and rise as a powerful country is great and very gripping but I think it divided the people. Such a radical movement will get strong agreement or disagreement and in his case, along with the influence from the government, Garvey was not able to get enough momentum. As we discussed in class, Africa-Americans and West Indians, for example, had different connections to Africa and generally it was distant and greatly a part of the past. That is where his plan generally failed, in my opinion. I think a lot of people would not be so willing to immigrate again, especially to a place that was not as industrialized and could have resulted in no job opportunities. Many people wouldn’t want to leave, unless they had been greatly motivated in being pioneers and starting a great change, or if their situation was extremely poor in NYC.

Chapter 9, as the title “The Underground Entrepreneur” suggests, discusses the “numbers playing game” which I thought was interesting. I found it to be a small uniting force amongst the residents of Harlem and later on others who played the game. I liked how the author introduced the big name bankers and entrepreneurs such as Pompez, and St.Clair.  I thought it unified people by finding a common ground regardless of class and status. It was also a clever way to make money for the bankers, which led to their accumulation  of thousands of dollars, and even millions, which led to issues with gangs but also led to charitable donations.

The issue of separation amongst different black immigrants, which was mentioned earlier in the book, was further developed in Ch 10. I found it a little sad that different ethnic groups used propaganda and others were taught to discriminate. However, the differences did contribute to great literature and the Harlem Renaissance.

The last six chapters of Blood Relations: Caribbean Immigrants and the Harlem Community, 1900-1930, written by Irma Watkins-Owens, were very interesting and filled me in on many things that I did not know about the history of Harlem. Chapter 4 talked about how the evolving Harlem community was comprised of a myriad of social networks that were linked together by churches, benevolent and fraternal societies and lodges. These social institutions played a significant role in helping Caribbean and Southern immigrants become assimilated into New York City lifestyle during the early part of the twentieth century. Many times black clergymen and society leaders were responsible for making the Caribbean immigrants in their congregations feel more at home. They were links between native and immigrant blacks. Chapter 5 discussed the tensions that arose within the Harlem community based on differing political ideologies. The relationship between immigrants from the Caribbean and the South and native African Americans was not the best. African Americans were envious of West Indian immigrants because of the appeal they had to white people. West Indians were viewed as foreign and radical by African Americans. They did not want anything to do with West Indian immigrants and hated the fact that people thought that African Americans and West Indian immigrants fell in the same category of people. Chapter 7 focuses on Marcus Garvey, a Jamaican leader who caused a spur in the Harlem community by advocating for a strong, united African community that would create a powerful, industrialized, and advanced society in Africa. He encouraged his followers to move back to Africa. Chapter 9 talks about the organization and the importance of the numbers game in Harlem’s economy. Lastly, chapters 10 and 11 tie the content of the book together by discussing the effects that Caribbean immigrants had in Harlem society.

Religion played an important role in the lives of the Caribbean immigrants in Harlem. Practicing their faith was one of the most common ways that Caribbean immigrants maintained a link with their native countries. These immigrants introduced their own denominations to the Harlem community (and American society). Caribbean immigrant churches perpetuated island traditions. This made the assimilation process easier for Caribbean immigrants. However, we must also take into consideration the effect that the interaction between New York City native blacks and immigrants blacks had on services. The manner in which most black Americans conducted their religious services broadened the cultural experience of some immigrants used to the more Anglican and Catholic services. In other words, many Caribbean immigrants affiliated themselves with black churches because of the way the faithful conducted their religious services. Black churches have an interesting and unique charisma that more traditional denominations like the Catholic Church tend to lack. They appeal to the culture and traditions that black people have. Social organizations, religious institutions, a collective economy amongst immigrants and kin networks all allowed black immigrants to adapt to a new environment. They provided immigrants with social, moral and economic support, three of the most important types of support that a person who is suffering needs and can receive. There were many organizations that helped immigrants make progress in life. Churches and other social institutions often served as places where native blacks and immigrants got together and shared cultures and traditions. However, I must also agree with Watkins-Owens when she says that, “Churches, benevolents, and fraternal orders were also class- and gender-identified institutions”(74). In other words these social and religious institutions served both to unite and divide the different groups within the Harlem community.

Chapter 5 focuses on the political side of Harlem and the struggles for its autonomy. Harlem was faced with a lot of internal “conflict” between immigrants and natives. But it also did not have a voice in the politics of the city, the state or the nation. There was no black representation in government. Between 1900 and 1930, immigrants and native blacks decided to take action to solve this. However, there were many occasions where the immigrants and black natives did not reach a consensus and thus there were several disputes between both groups. During this time period, the control of local political clubs was largely restricted to upper class people in Harlem, both native born and immigrant. The regular political parties were not outlets for divergent political ideas. If people wanted to mobilize themselves in the political arena they needed to have initiative and contacts. Political leaders were often financially secured and Americanized. Thus many of them did not even know what issues plagued the lives of newly arrived immigrants who were trying to adapt themselves to a new lifestyle. However, despite the growing number of black elected officials in Harlem, neither black immigrants nor black natives benefitted from this. No community-improvement projects were created to aid Harlem. Overcrowded conditions, inadequate health care, deportations, high rents, dilapidated rat- and roach-infested housing, police brutality, prostitution and racketeering continued to be some of the main problems in Harlem. Political institutions like Tammany Hall were created. They advocated for the naturalization of Caribbean immigrants so that they could vote. However, Tammany Hall was corrupted and did not put Harlem residents’ requests before theirs. They wanted support from immigrants so that they could continue to become more powerful.

Chapter 7 focuses on the life of Marcus Garvey and his impact in Harlem. He was of Jamaican descent and was deported back to Jamaica technically because of mail fraud. However, in reality U.S. officials deported him because he was considered dangerous to the American government. He supported creating a strong, united, and powerful African community that would work together to create an economically and politically powerful African industrial empire. His dream was for all people of African descent throughout the world to move back to Africa and develop a society that would be powerful enough to compete with other powers like Europe and the United States. He convinced many blacks by telling them that the white man denies them many rights. He was very explicit about what basic human rights were denied and then afterwards motivated people to agree with him by saying that in the African society that he would lead, all would be equal. No disparity would exist. However, as we discussed in class, many socioeconomic disparities existed amongst people of African descent. Some of these disparities were created because not everyone grows up in circumstances that allow them to become people with important and influential roles. Lack of money, lack of social stability within the family unit, and many other things that come from living in a specific environment creates disparity. The idea of physical appearance also comes into play. Garvey wanted the African/black community in Harlem to have their own economy, press, political organization, jobs and other things so that the community could gain enough strength and power to move back to Africa. He also stressed racial purity, disagreeing with the idea of black people marrying people of other races. I found his meeting with Ku Klux Klan very odd but understandable. Like Professor Lutton said in class, he must have admired them for their advocacy of racial purity. But I thought that his idea that all white people deep down were members of the KKK is crazy. I understand that as dark-skinned human beings living during that time period him and his followers must have had many terrible experiences with white racists, but he took it too far. Although I do not agree with his ideas at all and know for sure that this would never have been possible, I do understand why he would take this stance in the first place. Like Dr. King advocated for the idea of integration, Garvey advocated for the idea of moving back to Africa and creating an advanced society. At the end of the day, acts of racism on behalf of many whites (causing a lot of tension) must have been terrible to experience. White Americans feared that his preaching and advocacy would cause turmoil in American society because black people would rebel against the social norm. So in the end he was sent back to Jamaica.

Chapter 9, “The Underground Entrepreneur,” discusses the organization and the importance of the numbers game in Harlem’s community. This game sustained an underground economy, which allowed for the social mobility and the employment of many people in Harlem. Bankers played a very important role in financing many community projects. These were the people that others went to when they had an issue. Usually when people have problems with their society they go to the government. But as we read in the previous chapters, black elected officials often cared more about gaining prestige and power than actually helping out their communities. Many times when a banker became extremely successful economically, he would give back to the community by aiding those who needed it the most. Holstein was one of these bankers. He made a lot of money from numbers and decided to give back to the community. He gave to the poor and needy and even supported organizations that worked for the bettering of Harlem. Holstein, along with other benevolent bankers, was respected by the community as race people. Watkins-Owens also describes how even after black bankers had been exposed and harassed by city authorities, they were still respected by the black community. Madame Stephanie St. Clair is an excellent example of this. She fought the penetration of white gangsters into the Harlem numbers business and the rampant police corruption. Many Harlem residents viewed her with so much admiration. She was persistent at demonstrating how unfair the system was to blacks. Interestingly enough, numbers playing was not limited to the working or elite classes of people. People from all social classes and stages in life participated. It was a way of getting money that working at the menial jobs available to the blacks could not compare. The illegality of playing numbers did not stop people from playing it. This shows how desperate many were to make ends meet.

Chapters 10 and 11 discuss the overall impact that Caribbean immigrants had in Harlem. Chapter 10 focuses on artists, poets and writers whose art impacted Harlem culture. One of the poets Watkins-Owens mentions is Claude McKay. His writing portrayed the immigrant experience in New York City. McKay’s point of view is very interesting and I am sure that it appeals to many immigrants. He tries to get at the idea that although New York City (and the U.S.) is a place full of race issues, it ultimately is the place where people from all over the world could go to make progress in life. It is the land of opportunity. Although he has the optimistic view of an immigrant, McKay still reveals many of the issues that immigrants encounter when they migrate to New York City. Chapter 10 also talks about the role the press had in Harlem. It is very important to note that the press spread many ideas throughout the community and gathered people together as one in many occasions to advocate or fight against a certain idea or notion. The reality is that Caribbean immigrants played a huge role in the shaping of twentieth century New York. The immigration of foreigners to the U.S. has allowed Americans, especially those residing in multiculturalist cities to be open-minded and accepting of people from different cultures.

Watkins-Owens sets out to prove that Harlem is simply not a “black” area, which should not be only known for its “Renaissance” of music and literature. She wishes to uncover Harlem’s diverse ethnic backgrounds and its development as a multi-faceted society throughout time, with focus on immigration  from the West Indies and their integration into American society. She leaves cultural achievements aside, and discusses  political, economical, and social problems ( like immigration policies, housing problems, limited occupational opportunities, and conflicts with African Americans) instead. Although the West Indie population was relatively small at that time, in comparison with other immigrant/ native groups, it still left a decisive impact on the formation of Harlem and American views on race. She also continuously narrows down her focus onto the women of the West Indies, so in a way her book also researches the feminism.

Before the creation of Harlem, Watkin- Owens tracks the immigrant movement from the West- Indies during the late 1800’s and early 1900’s. Colonialism forced the Caribbean people out of their homes because colonialists had claimed profitable land for themselves. In the beginning, they moved only between islands, then unto the Americas- specifically the Panama Canal. I found this to be one of the most interesting bits of information so far. I know about the Panama Canal since it is such a massive turning point in American history because it expedited trade and shows America’s exercise of power in a foreign country. The project was a huge undertaking, which involved influx of various peoples in its making. I had never realized that a majority of the labor was done by Caribbean people. I knew Chinese and Irish immigrants work to build the First transcontinental Railroad, so how I did I not know who built the Panama Canal- another landmark construction? I also find it appropriate how these low wage workers would use their “Panama Silver” to gain access to America, and how their work in the Panama Canal would act as an introductory course to American Society (“Jim Crow’). And the United Fruit Company, such a sweet sounding, benevolent name, acted as a monopoly of exporting Caribbean labor when it was no longer required in Panama. I find also find it interesting when her work focuses on women’s struggles and how women fought to correct/help it. Respect those women who saw girls lured away from their homes with false promises, then responded by making the White Rose Mission and the Welcome Stranger Committee to help empower girls. Complex immigration policies already made it difficult for women to improve their lives and needed support of men/ family.

“On to Harlem”- how cool learning how my school’s neighborhood was built. Apparently, its all thanks to a savvy realtor named Payne who would exploit a rivalry between landlords. One apartment building with black residents would soon become the entire neighborhood, as former inhabitants moved out. Harlem would soon become the draw for “elite” blacks, like W.E.B Du Bois, and became the place to be. Caribbean immigrants from San Juan Hill forged Harlem with native blacks, but they did not truly blend together. Americans had a better view of Caribbean people then native black, seen as harder working, “Model” immigrant. Caribbean people also distanced, and differentiated themselves from native blacks and vice versa. Caribbean immigrants are highly devoted to forming and building their own community. Since many people could not afford to own a home, there were many lodgers and they functioned on a form of loyalty credit. They strove to rise in society because most were educated, but they were mostly delegated to lower leveled jobs.

While reading through the first three chapters of Blood Relations I kept finding myself very surprised. During our first couple of class meetings, we placed a large focus on Assimilation. Without going into any specific definitions or examples, we focused mainly on the idea of immigrants “sacrificing” some of their cultural identity to adapt to the new, blooming culture of America. Many earlier immigrants were forced to throw away their home world traditions so they can be looked upon as actual citizens. Fast forwarding to Harlem in the early twentieth century, there seems to be a shift in this ideology. Many of the immigrants coming from the Caribbean Islands tried to do as much as they could to differentiate themselves from native black Americans. In fact, many even kept their native language or learned new ones just so they wouldn’t be piled into a broad category of second-class citizens. In Chapter 1, a small story was given on how a train conductor had asked a dark skinned Cuban immigrant to move to a Jim Crow train car. Once the conductor had heard the Cuban man speak Spanish though, he simply punched his ticket and “ ‘treated him just as he did the other passengers in the car.’ ” I thought this was pretty ironic; a racist system such as the one defined by the Jim Crow laws gave exceptions to dark-skinned peoples as long as they spoke a different language.

A lot of my confusion concerning the whole idea of Caribbean immigrants separating themselves from black Americans began to fade as I read through chapter 2. It became pretty clear, pretty fast, why Caribbean immigrants would do this. These new immigrants coming from a variety of different islands and countries were immediately perceived as superior to black Americans. Coming from colonies that were originally founded by European countries added credibility to this idea but most of the incoming immigrants came in with something to prove. Many Caribbean men, and surprising for the time, women, had some sort of formal education up to and sometimes exceeding the college level. This made them well more educated than the average black southerner who migrated from the North. Even those immigrants who weren’t as educated arrived with redeeming skills. Large portions of Caribbean immigrants were artisans. That is, they excelled in a certain skill that they used to provide for their family and themselves. Some of these skilled workers included cobblers, tailors and craftsmen. Even though the job market was very limited, Caribbean immigrants had a less difficult time finding suitable work. Women, who usually weren’t artisans, had a somewhat easy time finding work in other people’s homes.

Throughout my reading, one thing that I though about a lot was how was native black Americans in Harlem reacting to this whole situation. Were they resentful of Caribbean immigrants who turned their nose up at them? Or were they impressed and motivated to better themselves? I didn’t really come to an answer for this question, but I hope to find some sort of one in my further reading.

It’s interesting to see how discrimination against social groups assumes a different guise when talking about the Black community in New York City. It’s a strange thought to think that America’s historically most discriminated group of people, when put in the position of receiving immigrants into their community, segregate themselves among ethnic lines. Black Americans living in Harlem weren’t crazy about hordes of Caribbean immigrants who tried to integrate themselves into American society at the turn of the 20th century. In a way it makes sense, look at every wave of immigration that this country has ever had. White protestants didn’t care much for the Irish because of their willingness to work for lower wages (and also the predominance of Catholicism among the group). Black Americans didn’t care much for Caribbean immigrants for similar reasons, minus the Catholicism of course. People like to look out for their own and tend to react with hostility when confronted with people, who they construe as different, try and integrate themselves into a community in which they are not a majority.

Not only does this constitute the highest form of hypocrisy, this hostility did nothing to foster a sense of community among people who, by all means, shared a very similar standard of living. The truth of the matter is, white people didn’t see a difference between the myriad shades of brown that were now populating Harlem. Pretty much everyone who wasn’t a white anglosaxon protestant was looked down upon in one way or another. While it is true that those who were heard speaking a foreign language such as Spanish and French received concessions and much more leeway to maneuver about Americas rigid early 20th century social ladder, people who made the trip from the Caribbean to the United States often suffered greatly during their travels. For example, only white workers stationed at the Panama Canal during its construction were paid in gold, the rest be them Haitian, Jamaican, or Guyanese were all forced to live in the same packed tenement buildings and were only paid in Panamanian Silver coins. Living off subsistence wages the process of making enough money to simultaneously send remittances to their family back home and pay for boat fare to America was a challenge of the highest caliber.

Without a doubt the surge in Caribbean immigration caused massive social change within Manhattan. With the help of certain beneficiary groups those who came here from the Caribbean eventually managed to carve themselves out a niche in the city despite the adversity they faced from all sides. Coupled with all the Black Americans who found themselves pushed north because of rising cost of living downtown these two very distinct groups of people managed to coalesce into the multi-ethnic neighborhood of Harlem, in the process giving the neighborhood an incredibly distinct feel.

The Harlem community from 1900-1930 has been influenced by various intellectual figures, drastic changes in the world,  and the influx of a new ethnicity, Afro-Caribbeans. Harlem has transitioned from being a heavily white populated environment to a diverse black community.

The start of the transition in Harlem was influenced by overbuilding in the 1890s.  African American real estate agents for example, Philip Payton persuaded white landlords in Harlem to accept black tenants. Also, with the construction of Penn Station, apartments doubled its rent in central Manhattan. Places like San Juan Hill, pushed black tenants out due to the increase in rent. Thus, these tenants found a place to live in Harlem. Harlem also attracted various intellectual figures such as W.E.B. Du Bois. James Weldon Johnson, and Claude Mckay. Du Bois at this time viewed the Caribbean immigrants of possessing traits of the “representative negro.” Some of the these traits included hard work and independence. This raised tension between native born African Americans and Caribbean immigrants. An interesting fact was that due to the the vast immigration of foreigners to America, sometimes black American citizens could avoid the Jim Crow laws if they were mistaken for being foreign born.

Societies in the Caribbean was different from society in America. In the Caribbean, although the elite circle consisted of mostly educated whites, dark skinned people could still have an influence. The requirements was having an education or owning property.This is much different from America because even if someone had an education, their skin color would decide their fate. The Caribbean also had a heterogeneous society because of the import of Asian indentured laborers. These Asian-Caribbeans eventually moved to Harlem with their neighbors, Afro-Caribbeans.

During the years 1904 to 1914, the United States took over the Panama Canal project and this led to the immigration of the Caribbean people to Panama for work. The Panama Canal project had a major influence on the immigration of the Caribbean people to the U.S because caribbean immigrants used Panama money to bring their families to the U.S. What I found interesting was that in Panama even though the Panama Canal offered a lot of labor opportunities, people were actually living in worse conditions than before. The Jim Crow laws still applied, which segregated the blacks and whites. The darker skinned people were also paid less regardless of their skill level. For example, black employees were paid in Panamanian silver balboas while white employees were paid in gold balboas. Another aspect of the influence of Caribbeans in Panama was women. Women were persuaded to emigrate by the Isthmian Canal Commission (ICC). The ICC employed black women for house jobs such as being servants. I found it strange how the Caribbean women were preferred over Panamanians.

After the opening of the Panama Canal, more Caribbean laborers were influenced to Central American countries for work. However, due to World World I, working conditions deteriorated and emigration was focused on the U.S. That is how the Panama Canal project caused the Caribbean people to eventually move into Harlem. There were also programs such as the Victoria Emigration Society which helped women in Barbados by giving them money for emigrating.

“On to Harlem,” Philip and Maggie Payton’s purchase of the Victorian Gothic rowhouse transformed Harlem from being populated with Irish and Germans to becoming a black community. The vast majority of black migration has caused Harlem to become “a city within the City of New York.” Harlem was furthered expanded by the Caribbean benevolent societies which raised money to purchase three to four story brownstones. Other organizations such as the New York Colored Mission aided immigrants by helping them find work.

In conclusion, Harlem transformed into a black community because of the influence of certain individuals and the immigration of the Caribbean people to the U.S. I was surprised to learn about how other events in the world such as the building of the Panama Canal or World War I, can contribute to being a major factor in the development of communities. Overall, the Caribbean people played a major role in the transformation of Harlem because of their contribution in making Harlem a culturally diverse community.

The first three chapters of Blood Relations: Caribbean Immigrants and the Harlem Community, 1900-1930, written by Irma Watkins-Owens, were very interesting and helped me gain knowledge about the history behind the formation of the Harlem community. I am not afraid to admit that before attending this class, I did not know that there were many people of Caribbean descent living in Harlem. Because of skin color and other traits that I stereotypically attribute to African Americans, I thought most of the people in Harlem were African American. This book has opened up my mind and it has also made me realize that although immigrants in America come from diverse political, socioeconomic and religious backgrounds, what they all share in common is the American Dream. In her book, Watkins-Owens analyzes the emergence of Harlem’s black community during the first three decades of the twentieth century by looking at the relationship between West Indian immigrants and American-born southern immigrants. Many times this relationship was full of tensions. West Indian immigrants were put in a higher social class than African Americans because of their work ethnic and the fact that they could speak a different language. This angered African Americans because they believed that they should be placed in a higher position in society because of the amount of time that their race lived in the U.S. West Indian immigrants were treated better just because they were born in a different place. Watkins-Owens also goes back to the beginning and explains why people from the Caribbean left their homelands and migrated to the U.S. What interested me the most out of these three chapters in the book is the role women and institutions, such as the church, had in helping Caribbean immigrants assimilate into American society.

Chapter 1 provides an in-depth explanation of the intraracial ethnicity in Harlem. I found it very interesting to read that Harlem used to be a mostly white community. Since I am living in a time period where Harlem is predominantly black, I always ignorantly believed that it was inhabited by black people. However, due to overcrowding in the tenements in downtown Manhattan, the construction of subway stations and other housing issues, African Americans were pushed towards uptown Manhattan. The movement of African Americans to Harlem created a huge change in society. Initially white tenants and landlords were upset and often times resisted this “invasion” but because of ambitious real estate agents like Payton, they eventually succumbed. Like my group discussed in class on Tuesday, more and more African Americans moved to Harlem because they found people with their same ways of thinking, their same identity, their same socioeconomic struggles and their same religion. Black Caribbean immigrants also moved to Harlem because it became such a desirable community full of people from all stages in life, social classes and with different educations. However, all of this movement spurred many issues within the community, “How would white American society perceive foreign blacks? Would black foreigners become allies with black Americans in the great American race struggle? And how would native blacks and their leaders react to a new expanding ethnic and nonracial dimension to community life?” (4). These questions were very important and were issues that caused tensions to form between foreign blacks and native blacks. Like I mentioned before, many native blacks were upset at the fact that foreigners were treated better because they could speak a second language, they were born somewhere else and their work ethnic was deemed better by the white community. At one point, foreign blacks were seen as the “model minority.” This motivated some native blacks to try and imitate the foreigners, but also caused many tensions.

Chapter 1 also discusses how myriad kinship and community networks aided both Caribbean and Southern immigrants by directing them towards employment and housing. These networks are very important because they made the lives of these immigrants a little bit easier. I may be wrong when I say this, but I do not see this for immigrants today. Many come to this country illegally and have to spend a lot of time struggling till they get themselves together. The support that may exist today is not the same as the support that the immigrants in the past received from their fellow compatriots. Many southerners and later on Caribbean people formed groups and organizations that assisted those who recently arrived to the U.S. to adjust to the system and promoted advancement. Religion also played a huge role in the adjustment of immigrants both from the Caribbean and from the southern states. Many used the kerygma as a way of helping them get through their struggles. The idea that an omnipotent being exists and is always looking after his people provided many immigrants with the courage to confront the problems they had. Many immigrants also introduced entirely new denominations of churches that were based on Caribbean culture and way of thinking. The formation of these new sects made Caribbean people feel more at home. It allowed them to express their culture and their beliefs in a god.

Chapter 2 is very interesting because it discusses the reason why Caribbean immigration to the United States started. According to the second chapter, Caribbean migration can be categorized in several phases. Movements that occurred between 1835 and 1885 were between islands. Once the black Caribbean people were freed from slavery they had to look for work. The only available work during that time was in the plantations. So people in the Caribbean immigrated to islands where there was work. This migration within the islands created diversity in each island because it spread different cultural, social, and sometimes even political ideas throughout the different areas. Each island had its own set of complex social dynamics. The fact that many islands in the Caribbean used to be English, French and/or Spanish colonies also added on to the diversity and uniqueness of each one. Colonization has many effects on the colonized. In the Caribbean, class status and economic mobility were essential to achieving recognition in the environment. This yearning to be successful encouraged migration of people. Initially, Caribbean people immigrated to islands where people thrived economically. However, once all the opportunities were taken, people decided to immigrate to the U.S.

The Panama Canal Project was heavily discussed in chapter 2. It was sort of the first project that incentivized people from the Caribbean to begin to immigrate out of their homelands. During the early years of the twentieth century, many people left the Caribbean to Panama in search of work. The Panama Canal became the first opportunity to thrive economically. However, the Caribbean immigrants quickly discovered that working on this canal would not yield them much revenue. The workers got paid very little for doing large amounts of work. Another discouraging notion with regards to the project was that workers were segregated according to skin color. White people who worked on the canal got paid in gold and received free housing. Black immigrants were paid in silver and had to find their own housing. Working conditions were also not good and many had to risk their lives for little pay. However, it is interesting to note that in order to deal with all the pain and anguish caused by this disappointment, Caribbean immigrants decided to develop their own traditions and created important social institutions as new permanent communities were created. The Church was the most important institution for these immigrants. Here we see once more how important religion was to Caribbean immigrants. The creation of communities made up of Caribbean immigrants had effects on Panama. Before reading this book, I always wondered why some foods, music and traditions from Panama were similar to those of some islands in the Caribbean. Now I understand why.

The exploitation of Caribbean immigrant women in Panama is also highly significant. I never knew that they suffered that much. In the book, Watkins-Owens says that many Caribbean women were lured to Panama by bogus agents offering them good jobs and then forced into prostitution. Had I not read this book, I would never have associated Panama Canal construction with prostitution. Something else that I found interesting was the important role that the United Fruit Company had during the time period. It virtually controlled the Caribbean labor market and had an impact on the lives of workers and their families all over the Caribbean. It offered low waged jobs to Caribbean people who did not have any other options but to accept and be exploited. Eventually, Caribbean people started to immigrate to the United States (specifically Harlem, NYC) in search of new jobs. The United States was seen as the dominant economic force of the Western Hemisphere, which led to the emigration of people from the West Indies. On a side note, this idea is still present in the minds of people from all over the world today. I have family members who want to immigrate to New York City and make their lives better. Even though for those of us who live here, New York City has many issues and problems that are yet to be solved, for those who live in other countries, this city is seen as a place where their dreams and wishes can come true.

The creation of family networks is another interesting part of Caribbean immigration and played a huge role in the formation of such a strong and united immigrant community within Harlem. Many times, people would immigrate to the United States, spend months or sometimes years working and saving up money to bring other family members to New York to live with them. Pregnant women would bring their little sisters to live with them so that the little sisters could help take care of them. The fact that immigrants kept in touch with family members back home also surprised me. Today, it is easier to keep in touch with loved ones in other countries because of the advancements in technology. It is amazing how back then, Caribbean immigrants would send packaged food, money and letters on a weekly basis and receive food from back home and letters in return. This shows me that the familial ties were very strong. But what I find very upsetting is the fact that all these people wanted was to make their lives better and when they came to the United States they confronted so much racism from most whites and had to deal with hatred from African Americans. I agree with Maida Springer when she says, “We were all strangers. The black American, the black foreigner, and we did not like one another, and the white foreigner liked us less and the white American hated all of us” (29). Although Caribbean people were thought of as higher than black Americans, they were still on the lower end of the social class hierarchal structure. This quote generalizes the tensions that existed in New York during that time period. However, it is interesting to see how over time, African Americans and descendants of Caribbean immigrants were able to ease some of these tensions and get along.

Chapter 3 provides a lot of information with regards to the evolution of Harlem from a white-based community to a predominantly black community. It is interesting how at one point, the word Harlem had become synonymous with black culture and black lifestyle in Manhattan. Many factors contributed to this change. As mentioned earlier, being “kicked out” of downtown Manhattan and other areas due to renovation and construction of new places was a huge factor for this movement. This reason reminds me of what is happening today with Dominicans who live in Harlem. Because of gentrification and rent increases, many are being kicked out of where they live and consequently are moving to the southern part of the Bronx. But anyways, it is important to note that the communities that surrounded Harlem were made up of Russian and Italian immigrants. Philip A. Payton and his wife, Maggie Payton played an important role in this movement of native blacks and black immigrants to Harlem. Since he was a real estate broker, he worked with many white landlords to allow black people to move into their properties. He, without doubt, assisted many people who otherwise would not have had a home. Little by little white people moved out of the area and so black people became owners of many houses and apartments and leased them to other black people, which expanded Harlem’s black population even more. The Church played a huge role in this area as well, by collecting money to buy houses for black immigrants. Some black people even created organizations such as the White Rose Mission, which were aimed at providing immigrants with temporary housing and employment. What’s even more interesting is how many immigrants worked together to make their lives better. They would pool their money to buy houses and increase the amount of houses available to black immigrants.

The first three chapters of this book have caught my attention. There are so many topics that I can relate to at a personal level, particularly the important role that religion plays in the life of an immigrant. It is in the Catholic Church that my parents, sister and I have found our refuge and have received assistance. Like many Caribbean immigrants, it is here that we have been able to maintain our culture and tradition alive. When we feel down and in need of guidance, we go to the church where we feel replenished and filled.

Something I feel this book has not explicitly mentioned is the effect that Caribbean immigration to the United States has had on the Caribbean. What happened to the islands’ economies?

From this reading, it is clear that in early twentieth century Harlem, the relationship between immigrant blacks and ones born in the United States was one of much tension. This type of relationship seems strange at first glance, as both groups shared many of the same struggles, and were undeniably at a disadvantage when compared with their white counterparts. Their dislike and distrust of each other seemingly came from the way each group was treated by the white majority, but these groups had prejudices against each other that enhanced these negative feelings.

Chapter 1 of Blood Relations explains the monumental transformation that Harlem went through in the turn of the twentieth century. Previously, this land had been settled almost exclusively by whites, and a virulent reluctance to let blacks into the area existed. However, after pressure from elite blacks, especially real-estate agent Phillip Payton, blacks were able to populate the area, and movements were even created to encourage this. By 1915, the area was even populated by immigrants from across the Caribbean. These immigrants were seen by the black community as people to emulate and look up to, mostly because of their “thrift, hard work, and independence” (3). By 1925, though, there were growing sentiments amongst Caribbean immigrants that they were being forced into black Harlem, unable to form neighborhoods of their own. It was around this time that there became a noticeable difference in the reception of native black Americans and those who were foreign. In the reading, multiple instances of such unequal treatment were provided.

Chapter 2 discusses the reasons why immigrants decided to make the move to the United States. After Caribbean communities had been established, it made for strong ties between immigrants, and their family and friends who were still at home. A result of this is that it became easier for more Caribbeans still at home to make the move, as they were able to move in with family and friends who lived in Harlem or other Caribbean neighborhoods. While they had high hopes for coming to the United States, that their quality of life would improve, they were met with scarce employment opportunities once they arrived, and the journey was difficult and expensive. Caribbeans avoided most of the south because of the alleged hostility to people of color. The difficulty of immigration was also extended by the policy of disease checks at places like Ellis Island, and the requirement that immigrants from the Caribbean must have financially stable family members who currently lived in the United States in order to successfully move in.

Finally, in Chapter 3, Blood Relations covers, more specifically, the movement of both native and foreign born blacks into Harlem. This phenomenon was known as the “On to Harlem” movement, which was started by preachers and assisted by large real estate acquisitions by various churches and Caribbean benevolent fundsc. This allowed many elite members of the black community to move uptown into what was considered by many to be some of the nicest real-estate in Manhattan. Eventually, whites in Harlem were ultimately pushed out of the area as a result of their refusal to coexist with blacks. When these whites moved out, more blacks were able to move in at cheaper prices and eventually the entire area became an almost entirely black neighborhood.

What I found most surprising from this reading was how differently foreign blacks were treated from native ones. It was mentioned in maybe a sentence or two in the reading, but it seemed that native African Americans had been placed in their own social caste, and had been, against their will, placed into second-class citizenry. When new blacks who hadn’t been so disadvantaged entered the United States, they spoke many languages and had more education. This enabled them to distance themselves from the African Americans, even though they shared the same skin color. I can only wonder why such treatment was deserved.

Adrian Horczak

Professor J. Lutton

People of New York

February 12, 2015

Within the first three chapters, Blood Relations describes the history of how Harlem became a place settled by many African Americans and African immigrants. It provides some interesting facts about the differences between the ways black Americans were treated compared with black foreigners. In addition, the book explains how the construction of the Panama Canal affected Negros in American, especially those in New York. Ties between family members in the United States of America and abroad are emphasized throughout the book because they were the main factors that lead to black immigration.

Apparently, Harlem was never imagined as a thriving black neighborhood before the twentieth century since white inhabitants resisted black residence in the area. However, a native-born black real estate broker, Philip A. Payton, began the transformation of Harlem into a community of colored peoples after a white landlord requested he fill up his house with black tenants. Then Payton insisted other landlords do the same. Since many African Americans that were living in downtown Manhattan were forced to move out due to new construction projects and overcrowding, they decided to move to the spacious, previously all white sections of Harlem. Therefore, within a decade (1905-1915), Harlem had become a community with a plethora of colored people from a variety of backgrounds including Jamaican, Antigua, the Bahamas, the Virgin Islands, Haiti, Puerto Rico, Panama, and West Africa. Harlem attracted black elite from the entire country and many areas of the world.

The large quantity of black immigrants coming to the country changed the white American’s perception of some black people in New York. The laws requiring separating facilities for white colored people, know as Jim Crow regulations, were strictly enforced at this time, but their enforcement was often neglected when a black person was foreign born. Black Americans had to abide by the regulations, but black immigrants did not and could go to many all white facilities. Black Americans realized that if they learned a foreign language and spoke it with others, they would be better off and some did.

When construction on the Panama Canal was to begin, Americans were sent there to design, dig, and build the features of the canal. At this time, Panama was introduced to the segregation that existed in the United States of America, especially in the areas where work on the canal was being done. White workers had good jobs, wages and housing, while black laborers worked long hours for little pay and lived in poor conditions. In addition, all of these jobs attracted new settlers from the Caribbean. The abundance of men in Panama encouraged some to have their whole families come. However, those from New York usually had established a permanent home, so family visits were temporary. Thus, when work on the canal was complete, many American workers went back.

Harlem in the 1930s changed from the way it was in 1910s. It had grown much more since the first black tenants that came had anchored their lives their and invited their families and other black people to come and live there. Among them, being a black foreigner made them inferior as opposed to the way they used to be viewed. Now they were ridiculed. Still black Americans even if they were educated could not get better jobs and move up the social ladder alongside white Americans because of the color of their skin.

Reading these three chapters has made me realize that there really is no more racism today because, as I stated in the previous statement, people were barred from certain institutions based on their race. However, today that kind of practice is illegal. Thus, opportunities are open to all races, and there is no racism. I do not understand why we have discussed the presence of racism in class if this is so. If indeed there still was racism there would be no black or Hispanic students in specialized high schools, but as we said in class, there are a few who take advantage of the opportunities offered to them.

Moreover, I am perplexed about how the view of black immigrants in America changed so quickly. In the beginning of the nineteenth century, they went from being treated better than black Americans to being jeered at by black Americans.

Blood Relations explores immigration to the United States in the early 1900s. It discusses the effects of families of the migrants, the new communities that were formed, gender roles in society and the creation of Harlem as we know it to be today.

Many of the immigrant families that came to the US came for better job opportunities. Chapter 2 gives the example of common laborers, for whom “completion of the canal in 1914 meant eviction from Isthmus. Others left voluntarily to seek work opportunities elsewhere,” (17). This just shows the cycle of migration for bigger and better, which is a mentality that continues on today.

The first three chapters also discussed racial issues as well as gender roles in the society. In Panama, black employees were paid in Panamanian silver balboas and whites were paid in gold. Job opportunities and luxuries were often in favor of whites as well. Once in America, and in Panama as well, women were not given the same jobs as were offered to men. Men worked in docks, as porters, and did physical labor while women usually did domestic work for upper class white families or worked in sweatshops.

My favorite part of the reading was chapter 3. I was interested in learning the history of how Harlem came to be a predominantly black neighborhood. On page 41, the author states “By 1920, the two-decade long resistance of white Central Harlem homeowners associations crumbled under the weight of the black migration.” This was a powerful statement, in my opinion, because it showed such a drastic change in the neighborhood and captured the power and strength of the “On to Harlem” movement uptown. I also found the idea of the successful real estate firms to be interesting because back in the early 1900s they were able to make a great profit off the large movement to Harlem; where as for a long period in the later 1900s it slowed down and is only now starting up again.

Another part of chapter 3 that I really liked was the section that discussed young women in a powerful light. The White Rose Mission and Industrial Working Girls Home as well as the Danish West Indian Ladies Aid Society seem like valuable organization in a society where there was not a lot of help for young women trying to immigrate to North America. In a time where so many girls were lured into prostitution traps, people like Victoria Earle Matthews were able to prevent such disasters from happening.

This week we began reading Blood Relations: Caribbean Immigrants and the Harlem Community, 1900-1930 by Irma Watkins-Owens, starting with the first three chapters. The book outlines the history of Southern and Caribbean black immigration to New York City and specifically Harlem. The relations between the people studied are seen through the lens of gender, class and race. These contexts are very important for understanding the demographic and cultural identity of Harlem.

Harlem was initially a white neighborhood, called a “residential heaven” at the time, which experienced extreme changes in its demographic in the early twentieth century. There was a lot of resistance to the influx of black immigrants but with the help of certain organizations and individuals the new comers were able to create a community in Harlem. Real Estate agents, like Philip A. Payton, were key in this. They convinced white landowners to rent to black people and eventually bought up buildings in the area. Churches and African American ministers were very important as well, as they also bought buildings in the area and united the native African Americans and Caribbean blacks in their congregations.

An important historical event that was a very important step in the lead up to migrations to New York City was the construction of the Panama Canal. This is discussed in-depth in the second chapter, “Panama Silver Meets Jim Crow.” The Panama Canal required mass amounts of labor, and drew most of workforce from the black populations of Caribbean colonial states. The mass movement of men for labor and women for domestic work changed the migration situation of the region drastically. It set up the beginnings of transnational networks that later became essential to the formation of the black community in Harlem. Workers would use their “Panama money“ to send family members to New York City. Once the construction of the Panama Canal finished, the laborers needed more work and thus found jobs in Caribbean ports and in New York City. This set into motion the heaviest period of black immigration, between 1911 and 1924.

Something that I found interesting about the movement of Caribbean blacks to the United States was their treatment. Southern blacks and any black person taken for a southern black was, for the most part, treated badly and with no respect. But many anecdotes within the text show how foreign blacks who spoke languages other than English or spoke with an “exotic accent” were treated better. In one striking recounting, a man was arrested and appeared before a judge. When the Judge heard his Jamaican accent, his attitude changed and assumed his innocence. This shows how class and history are really important to race relations. It also shows how relative and arbitrary racism and prejudice can be. It was strange to see this now because the views have shifted, typical attitudes in the United States now tend to lump all black people together into one group. From my observations, I believe that now foreign blacks would be treated worse than native ones. It is interesting how perspectives can change drastically and over a short period of time.

Once the black population was settled in Harlem it became an essential and indispensible hub. The transnational networks were very intricate, connecting laborers in the United States with families back in the home countries. The support went both ways in the networks with lots of correspondence back and forth. This facilitated further movement to Harlem. Within families and Harlem communities, people often gathered resources together to buy houses or to bring people over from the Caribbean. The area then became attractive for middle class and elite African Americans. The will to achieve successful mobility was very high. Many blacks in the community studied to become doctors and other such professions to improve their social standing. There is an anecdote that is a very classic example. An immigrant woman, named Edith Mitchell, volunteered at a hospital during the Second World War. After working there for a while, she became a nurse. She worked hard to send her son to medical school and he ended up becoming a physician. This kind of social mobility is what the immigrants all wanted when they came to the New York City. That is what they were denied in the conditions of their home countries.

The vast international consequences of the neighborhood like Harlem and a city like New York are very interesting. I would like to know more about the global political implications. I am interested in finding out more about the reactions and concerns of the European colonial powers and elites of the Caribbean colonial states as they witnessed their populations leaving in massive numbers. Another thing that I am highly interesting in is Cuban and Puerto Rican cigar makers in New York who where active in anti-imperialist, pro-independence and socialist circles. These issues of imperialism and independence are very important to me and continue to be discussed worldwide.

It is quite extraordinary how much history this reading contained so far. Having taken multiple history classes, we have learned about immigration numerous times, such as the various waves of distinguished immigrants including the Germans, Jews, Slavs, Irish, etc. However, this reading clearly elaborated immigration from the Caribbean, while being meticulous with every aspect involved in the immigration process. This reading so far has been very interesting, due to the fact that this immigration wave was not really emphasized in our previous classes of history.

The beginning three chapters followed a very comprehensive and logical method to depict the immigration of the Caribbean islanders, following a chronological method. However, the reading set the premise by the introductory first chapter, which gave a general overview of the background before the immigration that occurred during the early 20th century. In the beginning, there is a brief history of Harlem before the emigration of black individuals, which allows the reader to compare the two scenarios, especially during the crucial shift that occurred when Harlem gradually changed from white residents to black residents. Before this time period, the northern part of Manhattan including Harlem was mostly comprised of white individuals, and the location during that time was very homogeneous. A pivotal and very intriguing occurrence during this time was that, due to over-building, there was an abundant of housing space available, which with the help of real state figure Phillip Payton, was being gradually filled with black individuals. Payton revolutionized history by persuading the white homeowners to allow black tenants to rent in Harlem. This gradual progression eventually led to the formation of Harlem as we know it today, while the white moved to various other locations of Manhattan. During this time, there was a large shift of both native blacks and Caribbean into Harlem, from poor areas of lower Manhattan, which was mostly comprised of native blacks.

Another very interesting point that the reading mentioned was the hostility between the native blacks and Caribbean immigrants. Previously when studying history many of us have learned about the struggle between African Americans and white individuals along with the Irish. However, the fact that these two groups of people, who shared an important characteristic of being the same skin color, (during that time it was considered important) loathed each other was quite ironic in my opinion. Also, during these times of segregation and racism, the immigrants were actually treated more favorably compared to the native blacks. This unequal demeanor might have set the the two sides in conflicting opposition along with other reasons such as different cultures, tradition, beliefs, and work ethics. The fact that influential writers suggested to African Americans during this time to learn different languages such as Spanish or French, imposing as an immigrant in order to be treated more fairly, astonished me quite a bit. However, both the individuals gradually become accustomed to each other, due to the fact that they both lived in the same community of Harlem. Despite their differences, many shared the same home, and eventually they assimilated into unique relationships, with cultural diffusion playing a pivotal role.

Another interesting occurrence that was revealed in the reading was the building of the Panama Canal, but in a much more meticulous manner. In history class, we have all learned about the significance of the Panama Canal, but we never truly discussed the actual events that occurred during the building of this revolutionizing pathway. An interesting aspect that was revealed in the reading was that, once the U.S. took over the building of the Panama Canal, they actually integrated the Jim Crow laws. During this time, numerous Caribbean individuals worked extreme amounts to build the canal, in hopes of raising enough money to pay for their family to move to the “Land of Opportunity.” The Caribbean islanders, following the end of colonization, moved to various islands in hopes of increasing their social status the only way they knew how: by acquiring land. The major concern for these individuals was financial security, but during these times it was extremely tough, especially in their home country. These individuals moved from island to island, but to no avail. Many sought to work under the U.S. to build the Panama Canal, in hopes of reaching America, but this method was not efficient neither, considering the segregation and meager pay the black individuals were given. Along with this time period of injustice, other atrocious activities that disgusted me was tricking innocent Caribbean women into thinking they were going to U.S. to work, while they were actually made into prostitutes. Other more fortunate women were benevolent in their actions which consisted of inducing immigration of its family back home to the U.S. by working hard domestic jobs, and while doing altruistic actions such as inviting recent immigrants into their homes, giving them a temporary safe haven, during their time of perpetual struggles.

Being just in the introductory part of this elaborate reading, many hardships of the long Caribbean odyssey have been depicted in great detail. This reading serves as a window into the past history, that has been, on the most part, overlooked in our history classes, thus allowing it to be even more intriguing. The Caribbean odyssey consists of numerous events that shaped the country, and New York more specifically, as we know it today.

Mohamed Mohamed

The first three chapters of Blood Relations provided enough information for me to get a clear understanding of the early years of Caribbean migration to the States. Some was new to me, but other information had me in deep thought. How diligently and ruthlessly migrants were willing to work in order to step foot on U.S soil just made me stop and reflect. Also, the fact that blacks from the Caribbean who spoke a foreign language were treated better than the native blacks left me confused and curios.

The effort of many Caribbean folks to migrate to the United States was, simply put, incredible. I want to begin with the discussions in chapter 2 and the Panama Canal project. A trip to the United States was expensive. Therefore many were seeking jobs in islands of the Caribbean. The Panama Canal project offered thousands of jobs, however it came with a disclaimer. The construction of the canal was a difficult and a dangerous project. It required hardcore labor and was very unsafe due to accidents and diseases. Sources claim that over 26,000 men were killed, 5,000 of whom were workers during the United States takeover of the project (Source 1 and 2). In spite of this, blacks faced mistreatment and injustice (after U.S took over the Panama Canal project and instituted the Jim Crow Laws). Blacks were paid in silver not gold and were not provided with free housing like the whites. Nevertheless, many Caribbean folks still took the job in the construction of the Panama Canal in hopes of migrating to the United States.

First, I was overfilled with gratefulness after reading this. Living in the United States I have access to a plethora of opportunities. Sadly many of these opportunities I have taken for granted. These are the opportunities that many migrants would have seen as chances to achieve greatness. Moreover, I am living in the United States and enjoying a great education thanks to the struggle of my father and grandfather. My dad’s struggle however can never compare to that of the Caribbean migrants of late 1800s early 1900s. Again this made me even more grateful for having an easy time immigrating. Furthermore, after reflecting I began to feel a great deal of empathy for these people. They worked very diligently day in and day out regardless of the little hope of making it to the States. Even if this hope becomes a reality, then what? They will still find themselves searching for a job and receiving the low level jobs in the slums of New York (If they were unskilled or not educated).

Finally, the first chapter discusses how the treatment of the native blacks was very different from that of the foreign speaking blacks. A Spanish speaking black man was treated better by society than a native black man. Today, the opposite effect seems to have happened. Nowadays, the English speaking black man is at an advantage over the Spanish-speaking fellow. He is more likely to receive the job offer and more likely to receive greater opportunities due to his familiarity with society.

Chapter 1 of Blood Relations talks about the relations between racial groups in Harlem. The dynamics of these relations were important to Harlem’s development as a center for immigrants from the Caribbean. These people, due to their complexion, were inevitably settled into black Harlem. However, they had a particularly great social and cultural impact. The differentiating factor between African-Caribbean people and native African-Americans may have been the patterns in their cultural institutions, to which women contributed greatly. There seemed to be an emphasis on kinship networks and lodging because they led to (what the book called) “employers and hiring.” Harlem politics evolved as the old elite lost its power due to the influx of immigrants, and one notable and new tradition in these politics was the street corner forums.

Chapter 2 talks about the migration of African-Caribbeans within the Caribbean as well as to America. We are introduced to 3 phases in this migration: 1) interterritorial (1835-1885); 2) to foreign lands at the edge of the Caribbean Sea (1880s-1920s); and 3) to America (World War I and later). After emancipation, freed slaves started traveling to find work and good wages in order to acquire property. There was little work in the Caribbean; however, projects farther away (like the Panama Canal) encouraged migration. There were tastes of Jim Crow laws in the Panama Canal Zone along with the establishment of important cultural traditions. For example, blacks were paid in lower wages than whites and were paid in silver (instead of gold). As time progressed, America began to hold the promise of an improvement of life (the “Land of Promise”). However, there were numerous restrictions that migrants had to deal with when coming to America. They included health tests and consultation with the Consul. The receiving individual must have demonstrated financial responsibility, and there was harsh treatment waiting for anyone caught coming illegally. Women played a crucial role in helping settle newcomers. The White Rose Mission, Travelers’ Aid Society, and the Welcome Stranger Committee all helped newcomers find temporary lodging and employment. An immigration bill in 1924 enforced quotas and restricted immigrants of the “black or African race.” Many initially opposed; however, this opposition eventually waned. Thus, African-Caribbean people were being identified as part of a racial community rather than an ethnic one.

Chapter 3 talks about the housing and occupational characteristics of African-Americans (both native and foreign-born) in Harlem. Many immigrants had an education and even a skill; however, they possessed little money. As a result, they could not afford their own housing and had to lodge. Harlem offered a good environment for community building as more and more blacks began to settle there. Thus, the phrase “On to Harlem” became popular. Changes began to come about. The Payton block was basically an example of this transformation: from an Irish and German community to a heterogeneous black American and Caribbean-immigrant community. It was originally thought that Harlem itself could not become a black sector. However, this was proven wrong when there was a movement of black immigrants uptown and Russian Jews and Italians downtown. In terms of occupation in and around the Payton block, most were in low white-collar occupations. Some others made it in real estate, like Nail and Parker. Churches and organizations owned most of the property available. For smaller groups, collective economics was required with the pooling of resources. An increase in tenement development as well as higher rates led to an increase in household size. One inevitable side effect was the concept of lodging, which was a way of life due to high rents and an influx of newcomers. There was often a similarity in occupations and origin among lodgers and hosts.

***

What is important is that the main motivation of migration involved the possibility of finding a better job and improving one’s (or one’s children’s) present condition. This is true even today. However, it seemed that the true struggle back then was to maintain one’s status despite economic condition. In doing so, few achieved social mobility. However, these Caribbean immigrants could at least hope that their children could move up the social ladder. It was certainly a reachable goal; however, that goal involved an arduous path.

One thing I noticed throughout these chapters was the importance of immigrant family networks. It seemed that there was a mention of this on almost every other page. We could see the large amounts of communication between immigrants and their families. Relatives had numerous expectations of their loved ones abroad, and relations could get strained because of this. There was also the mention of family obligations (for example, older people being expected to help raise younger children). This all highlights how important the notion of family was to these immigrants. Families could have provided a support system for these immigrants. However, they could have also been a source of stress. I can understand how the expectation of making enough money and succeeding can put a burden on those already here. However, these family ties were beneficial for those relatives who were planning to come to America as it could have made the immigration process somewhat easier. Thus, family ties contributed to a “snowball effect” in immigration.

In chapter one, a point was made that if a black person was foreign-born, he/she was treated generally better than a native-born black person. One could tell from differences in language or accent. This actually surprised me. I believed that prejudice was based solely on skin color (despite country of origin). However, this statement seemed to challenge that assertion. Indeed, the book even mentions it as the “strange ways of U.S. prejudice.” I am curious as to why this was the case. Why were foreign-born blacks treated better than native-born blacks? In addition, the opposite seems to have become the case later on. I am also curious as to what caused this abrupt shift.

I particularly enjoyed the stories that the author put into the chapters, especially those about Aletha Dowridge and Charles Petioni. It seemed to add a human component to the writing. Instead of the book being a recitation of facts, it became more personal and relatable to the reader.

Chapter 1 of Blood Relations discusses the initial push of black natives into Harlem. This began when the rent prices of San Juan Hill- where most blacks in New York City resided- increased rapidly. Furthermore, race riots in the area along with the construction of Penn Station called for a movement out of the section and into somewhere new. Harlem seemed to be the choice black natives took, especially since real estate agents such as Philip Payton influenced white land owners to rent apartments to black tenants. Thus, Harlem began growing as a center of black community. With a growing number of black residents, Harlem began to attract elite members of the black populace, for example, W.E.B. Du Bois who sought to report of the Harlem movement in his newspaper. Other than Native blacks moving into Harlem, there was also a push by caribbean immigrants into upper Manhattan. This emigration was almost completely unrestricted, until 1924 when the United States initiated an immigration quota. Anyhow, by then, of the 328,000 African Americans in the U.S., 224,000 resided in Manhattan, and especially in Harlem. Surprisingly, the caribbean immigrants that moved to the U.S. were favored over native blacks. From accounts, it seemed that white Americans gave selective treatment to foreign blacks, especially those who they heard speak Spanish or French. Odd indeed. No matter, Caribbean Islanders and black natives worked together to form communities. Within those communities, there seemed to be an abundance of women, which wasn’t negative as women were vital in settlement and creating immigration chains. Many immigrants in Harlem assimilated to settled communions and institutions, others however formed their own churches. Politics, however, was not an interest of these incoming immigrants as it was a rarity to see a caribbean islander participating in an election, even local ones.

Chapter 2 of Blood Relations discussed the paths Caribbean Islanders took before coming to the United States. Specifically, there was an inter-immigration between the islands in pursuit of employment. Crop plantations sought to employ the majority of the population on their islands, and as well the populations on other islands. Furthermore, Caribbean citizens themselves were unable to get their own land as the colonial system ensured that freed slaves would become laborers and not land owners. Thus, hard labor was the only choice these islanders had for employment. And when one Caribbean Island had no opportunities, workers turned to other islands. Furthermore, between 1838-1917, some 500,000 Asians were imported to work. This created a tight competition for employment. However, some projects and businesses relieved the tension, specifically the Panama Canal Project and the Sugar estates in Cuba and the Dominican Republic. These work opportunities were also vital in the immigration the islanders took to the U.S.. After the U.S. took over the Panama Canal Project, Jim Crow was further instituted. There was segregation, discrimination, and cruelty in Panama as blacks were not offered housing and were paid in silver instead of gold. Even the lowliest white workers received free housing. Other than working on the canal, Caribbean Islanders, specifically Women, were recruited to Panama for household work. This helped establish Caribbean communities and families in Panama. Some islanders even set up businesses. Some women were unfortunately tricked into coming to Panama and then taken into prostitution.  In the canal zone, there was little social mobility. Only Caribbean Islanders people with skills and education had any chance of becoming something other than hard laborers.

After the canal was built, Cuba was the next destination. The United Fruit Company was vital in the emigration of people from island to island as they controlled the plantations and opportunities. In Cuba, Caribbean communities were formed around ports that had a constant movement of ships that brought mail, goods, and people. Islanders sought to maintain touch with their homeland and families. Coming to America from Cuba and other islands was extremely difficult. Not only that, but families had to be separated as the trip was too expensive to afford. Some islands governments, for example the Barbados, set up emigration services to America. This worked by sending mostly women to the United States to create immigration chains. Without such services, getting into America was problematic as there were strict guidelines and rules that were purposefully difficult that immigrants had to meet. Furthermore, transportation on liners was terrible as blacks were segregated and treated miserably. The senate did not help with the struggle of these Caribbean Islanders as a an exclusion act was passed to specifically exclude Black foreigners.

Chapter 3 of Blood Relations discusses the life Caribbean Islanders followed when they finally reached Harlem. Black immigrants that came to Harlem lived in close proximity to black natives. Thus, Harlem offered a greater chance of community than any other place for the incoming immigrants. Churches and black elite sought to expand this black community in Harlem by buying apartment buildings and homes for blacks to rent. This however was only in a compact section of Harlem. This changed in 1920 when whites gave way and began moving out of Harlem allowing the purchase of homes at discounted prices. Thus more of Harlem became further occupied by native blacks and incoming immigrants. Many parts of Harlem even became exclusive to the black elite. For example, “Sugar Hill” on 155 street between St. Nichols and Convent avenue was home to self made black millionaires.  Philip Payton, mentioned earlier, continued his pursuit of property management and allowed blacks to continue moving further uptown through his successful real estate ventures. Other black businessmen included Watt Terry, Montsenant Roach, and Soloman Riley who made their millions off stocks. Of course, not everyone could afford the homes Harlem. Thus, “no-interest” loans were implemented within the Harlem community to allow the easier purchase of previously unaffordable homes. There were also fund raising activities on the Caribbean Islands for the purchase of Harlem buildings. Interestingly, female household work was the largest occupation in Harlem. This was due the difficulty in which blacks could attain other jobs, specifically those that required high skill sets. Immigrants of course experienced a greater difficulty to find steady jobs than the black natives, thus institutions like the New York Colored Mission were created to ease the transition immigrants made into American life by offering jobs and lodging. However, blacks still sought social mobility in the city, and that was the main motivation behind their immigration. An example of such motivation was Charles Petioni who struggled with his wife for several years until he was able to earn a medical degree.

The first three chapters Blood Relations offered deep insight about the movement of Caribbean Islanders to Harlem as well as the life black natives led in New York. I was firstly surprised by the selective treatment black foreigners gained over black natives. I was also surprised about the movement Caribbean Islanders experienced undertook from island to island in search of employment. However what wasn’t surprising is the struggle blacks faced in all their actions. I have already learned about the struggles of blacks in the U.S., and now am I aware that the struggle wasn’t exclusive to the U.S.. However, it is motivational to hear the first person accounts Blood Relations offers of the Caribbean immigrants and the stories of the self made millionaires.

The three articles read this week revolved around immigration in the United States. Specifically, the three articles focused on incoming and settled immigrants, from the past to the present, and their impact on policies, American ideology, employment, institutions, and of course culture.

The Significance of immigration in the formation of an American identity by Rudolph Vecoli discusses the journey the U.S. has underwent in forming its own distinct nationality. Vecoli states that from its beginnings, the American identity was built upon the immigrant populace, but yet for so long, America has continued to exclude immigrants from its society. The article supports the idea of an immigrant identity in the U.S. through statistics of immigrant numbers in the U.S.. At its formation, the U.S. was an amalgamation of different nationalities and races, 19% being of african ancestry, 12% western european, and 48% English. However, only “free whites” in the population were considered citizens. From 1820-1920, in three waves, 55 million people emigrated to the country as the U.S. was seen as an asylum for the oppressed due its supposed open acceptance. However, many of these immigrants, like the catholic Irish were oppressed due to their religion. Also, east asians were completely excluded from entering the country by the exclusion acts of the late 1880’s. Thus, immigrants composed a huge population of the American society, and although some nations were excluded, almost all were allowed entry. This huge immigrant population caused an issue. The hegemony of white american citizens wanted these immigrants should assimilate to the already settled American identity, and although some did, others did not. The opposers argued that to assimilate would be contradictory to the melting pot idea. As Kallen states, the U.S. was formed on immigrant populations that infused their own culture into a new American one, that included the best of countless cultures, beliefs, and customs. This was the true American Identity, as opposed to assimilating to become a WASP society.

I couldn’t agree more with Vecoli’s essay. The U.S. was founded as an immigrant society, and to oppress immigrants and force them to assimilate would be contradictory to its foundations. Immigrants should not assimilate to the white American society, but should add on to an American identity that continues to grow with every immigrant group’s contribution.

Immigrants in NYC in the New Millienium by Nancy Foner discusses how immigrants have impacted New York businesses, institutions, politics, demographics, and the population. Mainly, the essay is proving that immigrants have diversified the city and have given benefits and growth to the economy. 1 in 3 New Yorkers were immigrants or of immigrant parents in 2010. That 1 in 3 contains a multitude of nationalities, that today are much different than what they were in the past. Specifically, in the number of non-europeans that includes Caribbean islanders, Latinos, Africans, South Asians, and East Asians. These immigrant groups however do not have a foothold in the cities majority population as no one group is long dominant as was with white europeans in the past.  Furthermore, these immigrants are not leaving their old country behind. Rather, they are maintaining old customs and see themselves as ethnic New Yorkers. Politically, many members of these groups have joined politics, thus diversifying the New York government. An example being John Liu from Taiwan. Immigrant groups have found job niches. For example, Caribbean islanders will most likely be found in hospital care, Korean would be found in dry cleaning, and Latinos in food service. Some immigrants have formed ethnic neighborhoods, which may seem contradictory the American ideals, but these neighborhoods are reviving areas. For example, Sunset park in Brooklyn has become a major commercial center due to Chinese and Latino influxes. Finally,immigrants have also increased public school involvement due the pursuit of the American dream.

This article was my favorite. Reading it was like justifying many of the things I have noticed through out my time in New York. Being from Brooklyn, every neighborhood I pass has an immigrant majority which infuses its culture into its surroundings. For example, I live in Bensonhurst which has a primarily Chinese area after being majorly Italian. And through that, I witness all the businesses opening and the increasing number of Chinese in schools pursuing a good future. Thus, I felt connected to the essay with my everyday life.

The last essay, The Next Generation Emerges, by Philip Kasinitz focused on the second generation of immigrations and how they are coping in the American society. Kasinitz argues, that contradictory to what is popularly thought, the second generation is doing much better than believed in terms of culture, education, and employment. Half of the young adults in NYC are either second generation immigrants or 1.5 generation immigrants. Meaning they are born elsewhere but mature in the U.S.. Kasinitz performed a study abbreviated ISGMNY that questioned 2,000 immigrants youth in various fields. The study found that the second generation is assimilating well to the American society. Almost all the second generation speaks english and has adapted to American customs. However, many continue to maintain customs and the languages they learned from their parents by choice. Kasinitz finds that the second generation seeks to be distinct from other nationalities, specifically ones that are close to their own. For example, Caribbean islander youth do not like being generalized as “black” Americans; they wanna be specifically categorized as Jamaican, Trinidadian, etc. In terms of education, immigrant children seem to be doing better than natives, specifically the Chinese and Russian. The study used a NEET(Not in education, employment, or training) to be the lowest for the Chinese and Russian and highest for immigrant latinos and Africans. However, those immigrants are still doing better than the natives. ISGMNY also found that the immigrants youth are straying away from their parents occupations and seeking high profile jobs in retail and finance. To do so, a large portion of immigrant youth are attending colleges and university, specifically CUNY. The second generation also seems to be more comfortable discussing race as opposed to their parents.

This article pertains to me the most. I am of the 1.5 generation and the ISGMNY census told the story of my life. I speak english and assimilate to the American culture, but yet  I maintain my Arabic background. Furthermore, I seek to do well in school and attend CUNY in hopes of a high profile job like many of the immigrant youth.

All three readings explain that immigration has played an important role in the United States and especially in New York City. They highlight the struggles immigrants and their children faced and what jobs they worked in this country. The readings describe how immigration changed over the course of time and how much more welcoming New York City has become toward new immigrants. Since in the past Americans were afraid the immigrants would take over their country, immigrants began to be oppressed. However, now Americans see immigrants as helpful and they feel comfortable living among so many ethnic backgrounds. The readings try to convey that Americans have accepted the fact that the country is characterized by a combination of different cultures. In addition, now there are institutions helping immigrants assimilate to American culture by providing affordable housing and good education.

The first reading, The Significance of Immigration in the Formation of an American Identity, mainly focuses on the nation’s policy toward immigrants. It discloses Americans’ uneasiness with immigrants because of fear of danger posed by foreigners to American values and institutions. However, this changed when they became to realize how the nation is a melting pot of foreign cultures that are melting and reforming. Ethnic diversity began to challenge the concept that people of foreign cultures could not become Americans. Now many immigrants are coming to this country and becoming Americans.

The other two readings, The Next Generation Emerges and Immigrants in New York City in the New Millennium, are concerned with immigrant social and economic status in New York City. They also explore the trends among certain groups of immigrants and compare them with immigrants of other backgrounds and even Americans. For example, children of Chinese immigrants comprise a large percent of students in New York’s top public schools. In contrast, white and black parents with high expectations send their kids to private schools. Additionally, they note the significant differences between the immigrants and their children. For example, immigrants would take low paying jobs that require long hours, but their children would not want to be employed in those kinds of jobs because they go to college and want to make more money.

I realized that the last two readings focused on immigrants in New York City. It seems they complement each other and sometimes state similar statements. They also begin with practically the same sentences. Since I live in New York City, I have notice that the trends among different ethnic groups indeed holds true. I see that many people who lack good English speaking skills have working class jobs, while most young people plan to attend college and get a successful job. Attending public and private Catholic schools, I have noticed differences in the kinds of people I see.

The first reading repeated many things I learned in my history classes. For example when certain kinds of immigrants came to the United States. In addition, I knew that immigration encouraged the government to change the definition of American citizenship. However, I was happy to be reminded that Americans started feeling comfortable living among people of different cultures.

Admittedly, prior to these readings I’ve had a very basic understanding of immigration and its history (a somewhat shameful fact as I am a child of immigrants), so it has been intriguing to learn more about the elements of immigration’s evolution.

From its beginning, the US has discussed what the national identity should be and how it should be formed. Since becoming an American was largely a choice (not counting those who had no choice), George Washington and John Quincy Adams both expressed that becoming an American meant shedding all prior beliefs, cultures, and allegiances and choosing to join the new American race. However, citizenship was originally limited to free white males, and it is virtually impossible to completely shed one’s entire culture. There was a divide about whether one should conform to the ideals set by the Anglo-American elite, or if one should have an exchange between their native culture and American culture, ultimately contributing to the melting pot.

Today, the US continues to experience its third wave of immigration, and New York acts as a unique frontier for immigration and assimilation. Immigrants continue to come for economic opportunities, oppressive, unstable conditions in their homeland, and because “newcomers do not stand out” in New York. As of 2010, New York is 37% immigrant and 55% when the second generation of American-born children is included.

Personally, I found the discussion of the second generation most intriguing. Generally, the second generation appears to be doing well, although Kasinitz and Foner both mention that this data was taken during good economic times. The second generation is achieving higher positions in the workforce than that of their parents, but it is still unclear if they will successfully assimilate into top positions. The youth also are more comfortable with the rising multiculturalism than previous generations of American. This is most prominent in multicultural communities like Jackson Heights, Queens and Sunset Park.

However there seems to be a divide in which ethnic groups are succeeding. Large amounts of Russian Jews, the Chinese, and native whites attend Tier I schools, while large amounts of African Americans, Dominicans, Puerto Ricans, and West Indians attend Tier IV schools. The latter groups also benefit less from the public school system and increased school choice than the former groups. What causes this divide, and does the public school system need to make changes? Is this discrepancy affected by the gap between the rich and the poor? Does it contribute to it?

As the baby boomers retire and immigration continues, mainstream multiculturalism will continue to increase affecting the workforce, politics, and society in new ways. This will once again challenge the notion of what it means to be American. It will be interesting what affects this major change will have, how the public will react, and how we continue to develop our national identity.

Vecoli – The Significance of Immigration in the Formation of an American Identity

• The hope was that the 13 former colonies would become one unified state.
  • However, contrary to popular belief, the population was hardly homogeneous and was, in fact, a “complex ethnic mosaic.”
• 1790 → criteria for naturalization established, but only available to “any alien, being a free white person.”
  • Full rights weren’t available until much later.
• Race was used as grounds for citizenship, especially during the mass immigrations of the 19^th and 20^th
• In the Declaration of Independence, it was written that “all men are created equal,” but were they really?
• Intense debate has existed over the years
  • Notion that America is an asylum for the oppressed of the world. (Common Sense)
  • However, there was a fear of instability in the social order because of these immigrants, as well as a lowered standard of living and lowered health conditions.
    • This feeling created the roots for the nativism movement.
    • The influx of Irish Catholics in the first major immigration wave created the grounds for the Know-Nothing Party in 1854.
    • Also, statutes excluding Asians in the late 18^th and early 19^th
• “Scientific racialism” was based on Social Darwinism in terms of Anglo superiority.
• How would immigration affect the American identity?
• There was a caste-like system in slavery and industrialism, but this collapsed.
• No one has taken the phrase “All men are created equal” more seriously than those denied their rights.
• Immigrants were expected to shed their cultural identity and assimilate into Anglo-American values and culture.
  • The education system especially promoted this for children of lower-class backgrounds.
  • The issue surrounding Spanish-speaking groups and bilingual education has raised fears that America will become linguistically fragmented.
  • There have been movements to make English the official language of the country.
• The notion of the “melting pot”
  • Notion where the various cultures of America come and mix together to form a new culture and identity.
  • Some have challenged this view saying that Anglos are the “cooks” in this melting pot.
• An interesting quote from Michel Guillaume Jean de Crevecoeur’s essay (1782):
  • “He is an American, who, leaving behind him all his ancient prejudices and manners, receives new ones from the new mode of life he has embraced, the new government he obeys, and the new rank he holds….Here individuals of all races are melted into a new race of men, whose labours and posterity will one day cause great changes in the world.”
    • It seems that it was the dominant view that immigrants were expected to assimilate into the dominant culture. It was surprising to see that this view existed even when the country was still in its infancy.
• An idea of cultural pluralism (coexisting traditions and cultures) comes forth.
  • Kallen: America as a “great republic consisting of a federation or commonwealth of nationalities.”
    • Not an “American race”
    • The idea of the melting pot was beginning to be considered a failure.
• In the 1930s, pluralism flowers because the depression undermines the dominance of existing hierarchies and of the work of people like Louis Adamic.
  • This then dies back down because of two decades of war.
• In the 1960s and 1970s, a reconsideration of existing ideas takes place because of the Vietnam War and the current state of the cities.
  • There happens to be a “revival of ethnicity,” and the melting pot notion is seen as an excuse for Anglo dominance.
  • There is an outpouring of different art forms (novels, films, plays, etc.) that examine culture and identity.

Vecoli’s writing examines how immigration affected the American mindset since the country’s early days. The conflict between the idea of “All men are created equal” (and so are immigrants) and the ideal of one “American race” was one marked by volatility. Vecoli’s writing identifies the obstacles that the country had to overcome in order to find its identity. He also goes into detail on historical influences on the ideas of Anglo superiority as well as the relatively recent idea of cultural pluralism. However, there is one quote in the article that I must disagree with. Vecoli states that “the visibility of the newcomers…has triggered a latent xenophobia in the American psyche” (15). I would say that the word “xenophobia” is somewhat extreme. Although this statement does correctly characterize some people, it would be incorrect and wrong to overgeneralize to the entire country. Even describing this feeling as “latent” would be wrong. Given how people can freely express their ideas through various mediums (most notably, social media), any feelings of xenophobia would be much more well-known and widespread than what is implied in this statement. Despite this, I was pleased with the writing, and the fact that it examined the search for an identity: Something that many people and groups struggle with everyday.

Foner – Immigrants in New York City in the New Millennium

• New York City = a gateway for new arrivals
• 2010 – 37% of population were immigrants
  • Huge impact
• Immigrants come from varied backgrounds.
  • Firstly, European; now, mainly Latin American, Caribbean, and Asian.
  • Higher proportion have college degrees.
• 1965 Immigration Act – increased immigration
  • family reunification and skills emphasized
  • refugees allowed
  • diversity encouraged
• Promise of better living
  • Fleeing homelands because of no opportunities / political factors
• “Snowball effect:” people who immigrate make it “easier” for people they know in their homelands to also immigrate.
  • Immigrant communities
• Drawn by an image as well as range of social, health, and educational services offered.
• Many New Yorkers have a close immigrant connection.
• Diversity
  • No countries dominate in immigrant population share.
  • “Every major ethnosocial group…has a significant portion of foreign-born.”
• Ethnic politics contributes to NYC politics.
  • g. Mayors have made visits to other countries (like Israel).
• NYC committed to cultural pluralism.
  • g. Alternate side parking regulations
• Immigrant population not homogenized; maintain an identity.
• Pre-migration values and attitudes shape immigrant experiences,
  • Religion, family,…cooking
• Many immigrants maintain transnational ties.
  • Help strengthen cultural patterns here
  • May or may not grab attention away from U.S. politics and issues here.
• Human capital – the knowledge or skills individual migrants bring.
• Immigrants make up a good portion of NYC’s labor (~45%)
  • 3/4 of immigrant men and 3/5 of immigrants women
• Some groups can be found in occupational niches.
  • Second-generation have largely rejected parental niches, however.
• A group’s demographic composition can influence:
  • Ethnic businesses
  • Elections
  • Marriage patterns
  • Family patterns
• Racial inequality is a harsh reality.
  • Prejudice and discrimination
• However, religion usually not a barrier.
• Legal status – inequality and exclusion
  • in labor market (low pay, poor conditions)
  • no welfare and other benefits
• Immigrants have huge impact on NYC.
  • Dense ethnic neighborhoods with distinct ethnic character (e.g. Flatbush)
  • Polyethnic neighborhoods
  • Community centers
  • Political groups
  • Ethnic businesses
  • Neighborhood revitalization (e.g. Sunset Park)
  • Food (restaurants/groceries)
  • Music
  • Parades/Festivals (ex. West Indian American Day Parade)
  • Literary traditions (novels)
  • Racial and ethnic dynamics (perception)
    • Have become amicable (“United Nations of friends”)
    • Yet, conflict exists
  • Ethnic division of labor
    • “Your driver is likely to be South Asian;…nursing aide…will be West Indian; the vendor at the corner newsstand is Indian.”
  • Marks on mainstream institutions
    • Schools (public school enrollment increase, schools for recent immigrant children, Roman Catholic schools)
    • Hospitals (interpreter and translation services, services for particular groups with certain health risks)
  • Cultural institutions (libraries, museums [El Museo del Barrio])
• Immigrants have radically transformed NYC
  • And will continue to do so.

In her introduction, Nancy Foner discusses the effect of immigrants on New York City: its people, its institutions, and its future. Foner goes into great detail about how immigrants leave their mark on and adapt to the City. I admired Foner’s use of statistics, examples, and stories to describe and support what she was trying to say. The thing I admired most was her extensive use of the future tense in the conclusion: “will remain a part of the demographic picture,” “will enrich and replenish,” “will no doubt persist.” She emphasizes how truly important the future is to these immigrants and their communities. Seeing the past and how much has changed for these immigrants over the years, it will be interesting to see what the future will bring for these same people. This reading also alludes back to the search for an identity; however, in this reading, it is coupled with the search for an economic and social well-being as well. While an identity is important, it is important that these immigrants achieve a degree of stability in life. I appreciate how Foner brought this up in the writing.

Kasinitz et al. – The Next Generation Emerges

• The status of the children of immigrants (the “second-generation”) is an important matter.
  • They far outnumber the children of natives.
  • They are also beginning to make an impact on New York itself.
• A concern: How would the city adjust to the fact that whites will soon not make up the majority?
  • Authors say concerns are misplaced.
  • Assimilation by the second generation seems very rapid.
• Many of the second generation are not connected to their parents’ homeland.
• The status of the second generation seems to be generalized. However, there are marked social differences and differences in economic and educational advancement, among other things.
• Groups vary in terms of education.
  • Russian Jews and Chinese do generally better in the education system.
  • Chinese, in particular, do better in the public school system.
  • More Chinese, Russian Jews, and native white attend Tier I (top-tier) colleges.
• Worry about the second generation’s entry into labor force.
  • “Downward assimilation” and “underclass of inner-city poverty”
  • It seems like this is not the case.
• 2G less likely to work in ethnic niches.
  • They begin to reject these parental niches.
  • These niches are seen as “immigrant jobs.”
• NEET (not in employment, education, or training) rate – highest for African-Americans and Puerto Ricans
• Second-generation decline seems unlikely.
  • Most 2G work in same kinds of jobs as most young people in NYC have.
• 2G not particularly interested in politics.
  • However, some have emerged as leaders.
  • Yvette Clarke, Grace Meng, John Liu
    • Support from broad range of immigrant/second generation groups.
• Assimilation seems to be happening faster.
  • Second generation more at ease with both American and ethnic identities.
• However, some caution.
  • Studies were done in good economic times.
  • How has the recession affected the second generation?
  • What about the state of native blacks and Latinos in the education system?
  • What about the status of undocumented immigrants?
• Despite optimism, incorporation of immigrants in the city remains a problem.

Kasinitz et al. examines the incorporation and assimilation of the children of immigrants into mainstream New York City. The authors present numerous statistics regarding the state of the second-generation in terms of employment and education, among other areas. I appreciated the use of these statistics since it provided a fuller picture of how far immigrants have come in terms of these areas. One thing that I found interesting in the chapter was the authors’ assertion that a “long-term view” of immigration (one that takes into account the progress of the second generation) would lead to a more optimistic assessment of immigration in American life. This is an especially important issue today, especially with the currently raging debates over the immigration system in America. I’m interested in how the authors propose approaching this debate. They talk about using a “long-term view,” but I would like to know what the authors specifically mean when they say this and how it would specifically apply to the current debate.

How does one describe an American?  After reading this short series of articles I’ve come to the conclusion that I don’t know, and I’d be willing to put money (a small sum mind you, being a college student is expensive) that most people don’t know either.  If I were to put it succinctly I’d say that an American is whoever feels comfortable in America.  New York City has proven itself to be one of the most amenable places to those hailing from countries both widely and scarcely known.  This environment has given rise to a million different ethnic enclaves each with their own distinct impact on the “feel” of the neighborhood, I use the word “feel” because there really is no one concise way to experience the impact that this myriad groups of people has had since their arrival.  Politics, local practices and, my personal favorite, food has been shaped in neighborhoods due to the demographics of the area   Truly, over the years New York City has become the most cosmopolitan city in the world.

A bit of personal information, I come from a neighborhood nestled in the heart of Nassau county that is 95% white.  While I always knew that New York City was this beautiful melting pot of languages, cultures, and peoples as I soon found out the only true way to grasp this concept is to live here.  Over the course of the day I am exposed to cultures both familiar and foreign as I maneuver the streets of Manhattan.  For example, on the intersection of 97th and 3rd (where I live currently) there’s a mosque and small hole in the wall pizzeria side by side.  Where on Earth would one find such a beautiful melange of cultures besides New York City?  As of yet I have not found a place that measures up.

It’s no wonder people come here in droves from all parts of the world, here they are given the opportunity to establish themselves, feel comfortable with their fellow countrymen and benefit from all the advantages that being an American brings.  Coupled with this, as Vecoli stated, they also are able to retain their cultural identity.  Their retention of who they are has facilitated their alignment among ethnic lines to form communities and lobby for concessions.  Of course, this situation isn’t completely advantageous for foreign transplants as there has been a long history of exclusion with regards to certain ethnic groups.  This exclusion is largely white on black based and has paved the way for black communities, such as Haitians and certain peoples from the Caribbean to rally for their rights.  I’d argue that such a mobilization of people could only happen here, where people are empowered by their heritage.

This city is one of the few places where people from all over the world  can make themselves feel as if they belong.  America was founded on immigrants, the various waves of immigration changing demographics both locally and nationally.

I walked into my first day of kindergarten knowing only a few English phrases. In a family full of immigrants, my first teacher was the television. Since a young age, I felt the need to call myself an American. I wanted to fit in with some sort of idea that, in truth, had a very broad and flexible meaning. I wanted to assimilate very quickly, but as I have grown older, I have found my views changing. In Vecoli’s The Significance of Immigration in the Formation of An American Identity, he explores the definition of assimilation. Does it mean to completely shed your roots and leave it at the steps of the Statue of Liberty, or do we give a bit of it up to this giant melting pot that is New York City? I found that assimilation was both a blessing and a curse for me. I did lose a bit of my culture, but I felt that I was simultaneously growing up to be a part of this new American race. Being raised in New York City gave me a different definition of what it meant to be American, than had I been raised in the Midwest, and in my opinion I believe NYC has given the word “American” a different meaning.

In Kasinitz’s The Next Generation Emerges, he quotes one woman who says, “There’s a certain richness that comes along with having another culture to fall back on. People are always intrigued. They ask what does it mean to be Russian and you feel a little special to explain and it adds color to you.” Out of the three readings this week, I felt the most connected to this one line. Firstly, because I felt that I related to the woman about knowing Russian and having that culture in our blood. Second, this statement holds very true to me. It took me a while to finally realize the advantages of knowing multiple languages and being raised in a multicultural home. I think that over time, I’ve been able, as Kasintiz stated, combine the best of my parents’ culture with the best that America has to offer.”

The third work One out of Three by Foner was probably my favorite piece. I liked how it covered so many things such as education for children of immigrants, jobs that immigrants usually take on, ethnic communities and businesses, and other obvious but overlooked things. I knew a lot that was mentioned in the article, but it was interesting to find out facts such as how Korean businesses transformed NYC. I thought this article also brought up a lot of questions about the future that did not have an answer. One of these issues discussed the legal status of immigrant children and deportation. I have heard so much on the news about college students who were considered illegal immigrants that were on the verge of being deported. I think it’s a growing issue, and there should be more done to protect people our age who are trying to receive an education.

The first reading is a paper titled The Significance of Immigration in the Formation of an American Identity by Rudolph J. Vecoli. In this article, Vecoli gives an in-depth overview and analysis of the immigration to the United States and how it was perceived at different points in the history of the country. Though the country is often praised as being the home of liberty and equality since its birth, it often created hierarchies within the groups living there. Some ethnic groups living in the country did not receive the same liberties and privileges as the ruling Anglo-Saxon class. There were multiple different migration waves to the United States, each from different regions of the world. The newest groups are always feared and discriminated against. The “native population” usually has several reactions; some embrace the new cultures while others push back against them. Eventually the immigrant groups are accepted into the American identity and then another wave comes, continuing the cycle. This article is important for looking at immigration through the lens of history. History is very important for an accurate evaluation of the state of immigration but is often ignored. I agree with Vecoli, that the country has always been heterogeneous, even though some like to believe that it was homogenous. It has been the combination of homogeneousness and heterogeneousness of the populations that makes the American identity such a complex and interesting topic. Vecoli’s optimism, regarding American identity and its inclusiveness, leaves me hopeful. This article also leaves me with a few questions of our future: Will the new groups of immigrants, like Latin Americans and the Chinese, ever be accepted into the American identity? Will cultures assimilate and keep the “American culture” stagnant or succeed in bringing changes? What will the “American identity” look like in the future and how much will it be affected by immigration?

The second reading is a paper titled Immigrants in New York City in the New Millennium by Nancy Foner. The article begins by describing why different groups immigrate to New York City, making it a hub and gateway. The reasons include economic ones, external political ones and changes in immigration policy, that bring immigrants to the city. I agree that New York is very special as a gateway because its immigrant population is very diverse and not dominated by a few ethnic groups. Once the groups are here, the things that they bring with them from their homelands affect and the change the city, keeping New York very dynamic. But this is not only a one-sided relationship, since immigrants keep transnational connections, so there is a lot of back and forth sharing between all the homelands and New York City. These immigrants also face different treatment based on they’re stereotypical occupations, race, religion and legal status. I agree with the idea that “continued inflows will enrich and replenish the city’s ethnic communities.” The changes that immigrants bring with them are generally for the better, creating a more culturally rich society.

The third reading is The Next Generation Emerges by Philip Kasinitz, Jogn H. Mollenkopf, and Mary C. Waters. The article discusses the experience of different generations of immigrants in New York City. It is shown that “by most measures, the second generation is assimilating into American society very rapidly,” which is something I agree with, based on my own experiences and observations. The experience of the second-generation immigrants is significantly different based on the immigrant group that they belong to. For example, “Russian Jews and the Chinese were significantly more likely to have graduated from high school, completed a four-year college degree, or acquired post graduate education than the other groups and significantly less likely to have dropped out of high school.” A trend that seems to be true for all the groups, is that the second-generation immigrants don’t fall into the ethnic niches of the workforce. The second generation, generally, does not have a strong interest in following or being involved in politics. This is another thing that I have also observed, living in New York City with many second-generation immigrants. I am very curious to see how the second-generation and further generations of immigrants will turn out and integrate themselves into the United States and the culture of New York City.

Nicolas Yehya

Immigration has always been a central topic of debate for many decades in numerous nations. In Rudolph J. Vecoli’s article, “The Significance of Immigration in the Formation of an American Identity”, Vecoli thoroughly analyzes the migration waves that have occurred in the United States of America over time, specifically noting the three main waves and their consequences. Vecoli makes it clear that ever since the early 1790s, the American population was a heterogeneous mix, containing many Germans, French, Scotts, English, and Irish immigrants. America was a conglomerate of different types of people ever since the beginning of America’s history. Multiple waves in the eighteen and nineteen hundreds quickly led to the resentment of immigrants and many other dilemmas. In the first wave, Germans, Irish, British, and Scandinavians were the main immigrants to move to America. The second wave brought Italian, Russian, and Austria-Hungarian immigrants to the States. The third and final main wave brought Mexican, South American, Asian, and Caribbean immigrants. Many native citizens of the States became cautious and weary of the immigrants, believing that the immigrants would not assimilate well into the culture and replace the white natives. These irrational fears eventually led to the Chinese Exclusion Acts and other similar laws for protection to the citizens against the immigrants. In the article, Vecoli explains that the melting pot phrase is a way for all the people and cultures in America to intermix and assimilate with each other. However, in the process, the population will form “cultural half-breeds”, thus losing a sense of themselves and their culture. To this statement, I completely disagree with how Vecoli views the term “melting pot”. Ever since I was a little kid, I have always viewed the term “melting pot” in a positive light. A melting pot is a way for the community to blend all their cultures together to create a harmonious balance to coexist with each other. I never felt that in this process, people lose part of their culture. The melting pot is a way to bring diversity to America with equal importance to each culture. It seems that immigrants always create fear in society when there are large numbers of them arriving to certain countries. When will the citizens of countries become more welcoming to these immigrants who bring their cultures and amazing information with them? Vecoli ends the article with a new sense of hope concerning that American nationalism is changing to accommodate the immigrants.

There are many reasons why immigrants migrate from their countries to the United States of America. In Nancy Foner’s article, “Immigrants in New York City in the New Millennium”, Nancy explains the many reasons that motivate immigrants to move to different countries. Many immigrants came to America to escape oppressive governments back in their home countries. Some immigrants, mainly the Asians, arrived in influxes into the States after the emigration restrictions were removed in America. Many hear about the economic prosperities and the improved living standards in the community. Some immigrants also came to America because they have friends or family members who live in the country. Immigrants impact the society and get impacted by the society in many ways. New food from the immigrants are introduced into the cities while the immigrants accommodate their living style compared to the American citizens. Certain traditions even tend to change over time, such as South Asian parents having a semi-arranged marriage instead of a fully arranged marriage. Many factors impact how immigrant communities form. Their gender, age, population density, education levels, etc. all impact how the communities develop and what impact the communities have on America as a whole. Many cultural and diverse restaurants are opening up now in the communities, allowing the spread of different cultural cuisine. The culture of immigrants is ever-present in every part of the society. I completely agree with Nancy Foner’s point that immigrants have drastically changed the way the American society is presently. I live in Queens and it is amazing to see all the diverse and ethnic restaurants that line the streets on the way to my house. There are immigrants everywhere speaking in different languages. Now, students in classrooms are expected to learn a language, most likely Spanish. This is proof of the fact that immigrants and their cultures are becoming a major part in the lives of all the people living in America and that they are impacting us in many great ways, making us a true melting pot.

With immigration comes the sense of nationalism and fear sensed by the native citizens of America. In Philip Kasinitz, John H. Mollenkopf, and Mary C. Waters’ article, “The Next Generation Emerges”, the American citizens start to fear that the immigrants are assimilating too quickly into the community. They are taking up a lot of jobs and gaining high degrees for the work field, making them competitors with the citizens for the jobs. However, there are still many immigrants who are joining the labor force compared to white citizens, making the immigrant children more likely to join the labor force even if they try to avoid it. Many of the second- generation children tend to not be interested in politics of America. However, the young population is now slowly forming leaders of student groups and nonprofit organizations. In the article, the authors make a point that people who live in multiethnic neighborhoods like Jackson Heights and Queens are more comfortable with ethnic and racial diversity. In other areas of the city, people are more sensitive and cautious to ethnic diversity. I find this point to be very true. As a child, I was raised in Jackson Heights until I moved to Queens and lived the rest of my teenage years there. I always had very diverse neighbors that I lived near to and I always accepted racial diversity. Going to different areas outside of the Queens area, I become more aware of the change in attitude toward immigrants in a negative way. People seem more hesitant to approach immigrants even though meeting immigrants could help the citizens learn more about different cultures of the world. Even though immigrants are making great progress in assimilating into the culture of America, there are still many difficulties to overcome in American society.

1) Velcoli mainly focuses on what being an “American” means by analyzing American history. He opens with the idea that America is formed by states rather than one unified mass, which later connects into his ending concept of cultural pluralism. He formats his essay by studying the formation of the country and the challenge of its acceptance of fundamental Enlightenment ideas. This leads into the progression of America attempting to take control of its immigrant population in the upcoming decades and evolving theories of how immigrants integrate into society. He divides immigration into America’s earliest settlers (English Protestants, which become the majority, ruling class) and the 1(1841-1980),2(1891-1920),3(1960-present) waves of immigrants. He juxtaposes original American ideals and the concept of birthrights, specifically “all men are created equal,” with later nativist policies and restrictive immigration policies that would bar Native Americans, Chinese, and darker people. He explores 3 theories of the “Americanization” of immigrants: Assimilation, Melting Pot (both failed), and Cultural Pluralism. He regarded assimilation as the hegemony inflicting their power over others and results in a racial caste system. The Melting Pot theory, creating a new race/culture through the mixture of all immigrants, never really happened. His last and resounding theory is Cultural Pluralism, in which people live together, while maintaining their core culture.

I appreciate his analysis of America’s viewpoint of immigrants throughout history, but he delves to deeply into a less acceptable theory, assimilation, rather than focus on a more acceptable, applicable theory, Cultural Pluralism.  He is very opinionated, clearly pro-immigrant and liberal, such as his impassioned statements on pg. 17 about immigrants being in the biggest need of humanitarian rights, yet they struggle to overcome the Anglo authority. I understand racism is bad and Americans still believe in similar ideas, but at some point this essay becomes an argument against nativist beliefs and fails at producing a successful counterargument. He directly states “pluralism prevails” and states that “the outcome is much more complicated.” Why does pluralism prevail and what are the complications? And I know that cultural pluralism is a generally new theory, but if it is correct the author should be able to explains how this theory has been working throughout time rather than just briefly mention it at the end. That would definitely be more insightful.

2) These two articles are like my life story. They pretty much give a clear overview into New York society, as immigrants integrate into a new life, and circumstances as a second generation American. Their “studies”affirm a lot of stereotypes, like Asians are good at school, although these studies seem like general interviews and a small group consensus. Generally these reports say that second generation immigrants are becoming the New New York and they are mainly considered American with raising status in position in the job market. They define the upwards climb through high schools, colleges, jobs, and politics -mostly within the confines of their ethnicity. I find Kasinitz’s article interesting because he compares the growth of the immigrant communities to condition of native New Yorkers ( presumably here since the 50’s at least), especially the downturn of native black and hispanic communities. Why is that? Overall, I prefer Foner’s paper because she takes a more detailed, holistic view with many subcategories. Kasinitz seems to be determine to convince that second generation immigrants are straight up American and melded more together, while Foner focuses more the internal struggle with identity and change within ethnic communities. I found the food and child rearing section particularly interesting because it shows the city effecting the people, not the other way around. Is Foner’s study the same as Kasinitz’s? Many of the same references. I love how CUNY is mentioned as an integral part of the city’s progression.

The first reading, by Rudolf J. Vecoli, provided a brief overview of various topics having to do with immigration in the United States. First and foremost, it gave a timeline of when various immigrant groups throughout history arrived, but more importantly, how they were received by the American public. For instance, it discusses how Irish Catholics were persecuted for not only their rowdy behavior, but also for their subscription to the Catholic religion and supposed allegiance to the Pope. The paper brings up, as that example clarifies, a glaring contradiction in the American mindset. This idea is the idea of equality for all, but in practice only certain people are afforded such equality. The paper also discussed the inaccuracy of calling the United States a “melting pot” because of how it implies that more assimilation occurs than what happens in reality.

It seems to me that calling the United States a melting pot is not really very accurate. I would argue that the U.S. is more of a cultural buffet where people can choose as much or as little of different cultures as they want, and altogether ignore and reject some. While it is true that there are certain areas, such as large cosmopolitan cities, where there is indeed more interaction between different cultures, these areas are still often quite segregated.

The second reading discusses, more specifically, immigration in New York City. The paper begins by discussing how different modern immigration to New York City is from the wave that came at the turn of the twentieth century. The reason for the difference is mostly because of the ethnic backgrounds of the immigrants. In the early 1900’s, most immigrants came from Europe, but now people from all over the globe come in large numbers. The reading then discussed immigrants’ connections with their home countries, and the economic outlooks of various immigrant groups. It mentioned that “Russian and European groups in New York City have among the highest levels of education” while “Latin American and Hispanic Caribbean groups” have the lowest. This causes the former groups to have a much easier time finding economic success than the latter ones. The reading also mentions some of the social challenges and prejudices that immigrants, especially dark skinned ones, face.

After living in Manhattan for a few months now, I have really been able to see what this article is talking about. As I have explored various parts of the city, I have noticed different neighborhoods with different ethnic groups, and I have also noticed that different parts of the city are like completely different worlds. Around campus, it is generally not a very wealthy area, and there usually isn’t very much going on in the community. If I go just one stop downtown on the A train, I’m in an affluent cultural hub with shining lights and plenty to do. The segregation here really is very apparent, and I think we, as a community, should aspire to lesson this phenomenon.

The final reading focuses more on second generation, young Americans who are living in New York City. The writers of this reading conducted a study on this population of people, second generation immigrants, and found that they “assimilating into American society very rapidly,” especially when it comes to language. The writers found that these second generation immigrants have little concern with the homeland of their parents, and many have not even visited. Like the previous reading, this one mentions how descendants of dark skinned immigrants report feeling discriminated against, even by the city’s police force. The reading also discusses the education of this group of people, as well as the jobs they seek. It brings up that many of the immigrant groups are struggling to succeed in the city’s system, while the higher educated Chinese and Russians are even more successful than native whites and blacks.

As someone who didn’t experience the New York City K-12 public school system, I am not looking at this issue from a place of familiarity. However, from what the reading said, it seems that something must be done to figure out why there is a difference in success between different groups of immigrants, and something should be done to address it.

The three texts, “The Significance of Immigration in the Formation of an American Identity,” “The Next Generation Emerges,” and “One Out of Three: Immigrant New York in the 21^st Century,” written by Vecoli, Kasinitz, and Foner correspondingly all brought up many significant issues, themes and ideas. Coming from a family of immigrants, I can relate to many of the topics discussed by the three writers. It is interesting to read about the different perspectives surrounding assimilation of immigrants to American culture, the future of the American-born second generation, the tensions that exist with regards to immigration law reform and the effect that immigrants have had on New York City. An idea that was common in all three pieces of writing is that immigration affects both the immigrants and the place they immigrate to. Culture and tradition are part of everyone’s identity, so it is understandable that they would influence American culture. The United States is comprised of people from so many different places, with different cultures, and perspectives of life it is almost impossible to come up with a uniform outlook.

In “The Significance of Immigration in the Formation of an American Identity,” Vecoli addresses immigration, starting from the immigration of the British to the New World and how the migration of different peoples over time has drastically changed American society. He mentions that, “America has always been a complex, ethnic mosaic divided into segregated, quarrelsome groups by culture, language, religion and race” (Vecoli). This phrase is true in so many ways. Although the United States prides itself in saying that all men are created equal and that everyone is welcome to join the melting pot, the reality is that there are many issues and tensions surrounding equality and acceptance of individuals as U.S. citizens. Throughout many years, different groups of people, including slaves, Native Americans, Asians, and more recently Hispanics have been stigmatized by Anglo Americans for being different and have consciously (or subconsciously) been divided into groups that struggle socioeconomically. People come to the United States from all over the world, thinking that they can make their lives better only to find out that they cannot make as much progress as they would want because of their race, ethnicity, or religious affiliation among other things. These problems make me question the effectiveness of the Enlightenment ideals that are often linked to the founding processes and the way this country functions. Different people in different periods of time will interpret ideals in ways that will be convenient to them. This is clear in the phrases, all men are created equal and life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. When America’s founding fathers proclaimed these phrases to the public they were referring to liberating themselves from British oppression. They did not even think about people of African descent and whether or not they should be considered equal. However, during the Civil Rights Movement, those same phrases were used by activists to fight for black rights.

An interesting idea brought up by Vecoli is the change that has occurred in the American naturalization process. The process in the eighteenth and nineteenth century was extremely simple (if you were a WASP). However, once the waves of immigrants started to arrive, things became more complicated. America was introduced to people that had different ways of cooking, different religions, different educations and different political and economic ideologies. All of this made Americans realize that immigration and naturalization policies followed by a country are key to its understanding of self-conception as a nation. By determining whom to admit to residence and citizenship, the government defines the future ethnic and racial composition of the population. It is important to note that many Americans do not approve of unrestricted immigration because of a threat to the stability of the social order and a change in the national identity. However, in many occasions, they have allowed immigration to occur because it is convenient for them. I have family members in this country who are housekeepers and they are exploited, working more than twelve hours a day and earning less than minimum wage per hour. Why….because they are undocumented. Who benefits from this? Their bosses. This example is used to show how America has not really done anything to address immigration because the U.S. needs illegal immigration in the same way it needed slavery two hundred years ago to thrive economically. Many American citizens argue that illegal immigrants or even first generation Americans take away jobs from the market that would otherwise go to a native citizen, which is why they should be deported back to their countries and not be given residency or citizenship. But what they forget is that, they too in one way or another take advantage of the exploitation of these people and that at one point one of their ancestors was an immigrant.

The controversy surrounding the idea of assimilation of immigrants into American society has also caught my attention because it is interesting to see how some people feel that once a person moves to the U.S. he/she should stop using his/her native language, forget about their customs and traditions and adjust to American culture. But what is American culture? No two people would be able to give the same response. The fact is that the United States is like a heterogeneous mixture. It is composed of so many different ideologies. Nothing in the U.S. is unique only to it, besides its history. Holidays celebrated in the U.S. are celebrated elsewhere, languages spoken in the U.S. are spoken elsewhere, even foods cooked in the U.S. come from other places. I understand the fact that immigrants should learn the language, but only with the idea that it would make their lives easier in mind. Many do not learn not because they do not want to, but because they have other responsibilities that they must address first. In class we talked about how some believe that people who immigrated before 1965 were less lazy than immigrants today because they assimilated into society quickly and more efficiently. I think that if anything, today’s immigrants are more hardworking because they have had to abandon their homogenous country and come to a multiculturalist country, where many times they do not feel welcomed to work and make progress in life.

In “The Next Generation Emerges,” Kasinitz addresses the issue of what sort of New Yorkers immigrants are and what sort of New Yorkers they are creating. This article goes into an in-depth analysis of the American-born second generation and compares them to the generation of white and black natives. I find it interesting how something that makes New York unique is the fact that there are white and black people who are children of immigrants or immigrants themselves. I remember in kindergarten being in ESL with only white children. I could not understand why they needed help with English. I had ignorantly believed that all whites should automatically know English like I knew Spanish. But it was there that I learned otherwise. An interesting issue this article raises is the fact that Chinese and Russian Jewish second generations were more successful at graduating from college in four years and getting a good job, than their Hispanic and black colleagues. I guess it has to do with assimilation to American society in some cases. I also think that race and socioeconomic background come into play. If I come from a stable and united family unit, I will be able to succeed. However, if I come from an unstable family, I will most likely fail. Support is also very important.

In his article, Kasinitz says that “particularly the children of poor and racially stigmatized labor migrants will find themselves increasingly isolated from opportunities in the mainstream economy” (Kasinitz). I completely agree with this statement. How can a person make progress in life if he is stuck in a “rut”? Kasinitz further presents the idea that a person who is a part time student and a part time worker will take longer to graduate and have low income and weak labor attachment. This is true, people should concentrate on one thing. But sometimes the situation is such that a person is forced to work. Who can prevent that? Some have the opportunity to just study and do well, while others don’t. This creates an unpreventable disparity. Another interesting idea discussed in this text is that of “immigrant jobs” and how the second generation does not want to ever have jobs like that. I agree with this on a personal level. I admire my parents for working as hard as they do for the family’s well being but I would never want their jobs.

Some last important remarks that I would like address from this article are the fact that many people think that immigrants who grew up in the U.S. and second generation young people will never become assimilated to American society and will always have that sense of loyalty to their parents’ native country. However, like Kasinitz said in his article, research and analysis shows otherwise. As it turns out, second generation young people are doing as well as their native colleagues. They have learned the English language and the American culture and traditions. Many of them have never been to their parents’ homeland and some cannot even speak their parents’ native language. It is true that many immigration debates are only focused on recent arrivals. No one takes notice of the intergenerational progress and rapid assimilation that occurs in the majority of the cases. What makes these people different from people who had parents who were born in the U.S. is that they do not have parental and familial resources to fall back on. Members of the 1.5 generation have it even worse because they take advantage of all the educational opportunities in their reach but are denied basic rights. Many do not have a political or legal voice. Although DACA has provided help, it has not taken out all these people from their “rut.”

In “Immigrants in New York City in the New Millennium,” Foner provides a general background on the immigration of the last fifty years and the special features that New York has as an immigrant city. She points out the factors that shape the experiences of immigrants in New York and the ways that they are changing the city. She is explicit at pointing out common themes as well as differences among immigrant groups. Lastly she raises some questions about patterns in the future. In the beginning she explains where exactly people are coming from and the general reasons why they choose to migrate from their countries. An idea that I think is very interesting is the fact that many times, the U.S. grants admission to particular groups as refugees. This action makes the United States seem like a very welcoming and humanitarian nation. But once these people arrive at the U.S., they begin to see how hard it is to make progress in this nation. There are many socioeconomic barriers between a person and economic success.

When my parents immigrated to this country, they felt alone and isolated from the rest of society. The only way my parents could fill in that emptiness they had was to stay in touch with family back in Ecuador. So when I read that often times immigrants stay in touch with relatives in Foner’s text, I took it as a method used by them to remain connected with their homeland and little by little adjust to a new place. It is interesting to note how premigration values, attitudes, and customs do not go away. That is why today we still see people trying to force their children into arranged marriages or into a religion they do not necessarily agree with. Making the children follow what the parents follow gives many parents a feeling that not everything was lost when they left home. But what parents do not consider are the effects that this has on their children. I also agree with the idea that the advancement of technology has eased the assimilation process for many. Nowadays the only thing you need is a smart phone and a Wi-Fi connection, and you can see your friend on the other side of the world face to face.

Another idea that I find interesting is that it is very easy to come up with stereotypes for different things including a race’s association with certain types of jobs, ways of thinking, certain sectors of a country, etc. Sometimes I do not understand why some people associate these things with inferiority. They should be happy that they are taking small steps for a better life. The particular migration of a race to a specific area in a place is quite understandable. In the beginning and sometimes for a long period of time, people like to live amongst others that have similar ideologies as they do. Although in the long run, interacting with different people is beneficial, in the beginning it is hard to do.

The effect immigration has had on institutions in the U.S. is also very awesome. The American Catholic Church, as an example, is very diverse and liberal in many senses. It has had to make itself appealable to people that have different cultures and speak different languages. In conclusion, immigrants are not only influenced by the social, political and economic forces in New York City, but are agents of change in the city. The changes that they have brought on the city are very important and historical. Overall, it has made many New Yorkers open-minded in the sense that they can acknowledge that there is a world out there with people who are very different than they are.

The three readings were very insightful about the complex idea of immigration throughout American immigration. Although all three readings talked about the various immense waves of immigrants into America, the Vecoli reading was the most descriptive in an historical sense. The other two readings of Foner and Kasinitz talked primarily about the current issues related to Immigration today.

An interesting concept that was mentioned throughout the readings was assimilation and melting pot. But, these terms were cleverly mentioned differently between two readings particularly. In my opinion, Vecoli’s reading was very eye- opening because it was brief and concise explaining the true hardships of immigrations in the past. Vecoli’s main purpose was to identify the American identity, but he concluded that it can not be declared a single entity because it is continuously changing. However, Vecoli “clarified” that the true definition of melting pot and assimilation was to eradicate all the ethnic characteristics that made you unique, in order to “assimilate” into a person accepted by the angle-saxon white people part of the elite hegemony. Vecoli was concise in stating that the melting pot and assimilation was a complete fallacy. The immigrants were forced to change themselves in order to cope with society dominated by the white elite.

On the other hand, Kasinitz clarified the terms melting pot and assimilation in a different connotation. However, Kasinitz’s clarification resembles our current situation today. According to Kasinitz, New York is a melting pot with various ethnic groups assimilated into a conglomeration of various traditions. Despite Vecoli’s description of “false assimilation,” Kasinitz stated how New York is a mix of multiple ethnic groups, which truly comprises the true definition of melting pot, as seen today. As time has progressed, the concepts of assimilation and melting pot were finally fulfilled. As seen today with 1st generation and mostly 2nd generation immigrants, they have assimilated into the American culture by primarily learning to speak English along with other traditions they have adapted over time. But, the difference is that these immigrants can still grasp onto their ethnic backgrounds, compared to the past, when the elite white eradicated the immigrants relationship to their ethnic background to become fully incorporated into a white American.

The third reading by Foner, similar to Kasinitz, mainly emphasized the influences of immigrants on New York, and the influence of New York on the immigrants. The immigrants in the present, have assimilated into New York life seamlessly. New York, with its high demand of labor, attracts the immigrants due to its availability of jobs. But, due to recent economic hardships, it is becoming more difficult, and the problem of job shortages is still being coped with. Immigrants have impacted the NYC largely, for example Little Italy, Chinatown, etc. Immigrants also impact the public education system, especially CUNY, which does an impeccable job giving the opportunity to immigrants to get an education. Other parts of the city that are affected include hospitals, library, and museums. Ultimately, America has started opening up to multinationalism country, with immigrants coming from even more places like Central America, South America, and the Caribbean. However, incorporation of immigrants still remains a problem for both the city and the nation.

The Significance of Immigration in the Formation of an American Identity by Rudolph J. Vecoli

Vecoli does an impressive job of summarizing the progression of the American Identity while also highlighting the important role immigration has played in its creation. He notes the transformation of the ideals pertaining to immigration and foreign peoples, from those surrounding the already diversified population of early America, to the enactment of immigration quota systems, to the general acceptance of pluralism. I find that Vecoli does a sound job at detailing multiple (even opposing) points of view, allowing for the reader to look at the development of an American Identity through a wide lens. The friction between strong, opposing ideals of the American Identity has existed nearly since birth of America. In fact, it is arguable that America was born from this. While England wished to maintain a strong influence (economically, politically and even socially) over the thirteen colonies, the colonists have developed their own culture, their own identity. Believing that they should live free of oppression, they decided to create a country that was rooted in that ideal. However, as the country grew, the attempt to create a singular, unique identity went against this very idea. And, as a result, different groups and sects arose, each one proposing its own sentiment on what a true American is and their plan to enforce that belief.

Thanks to this reading, I can finally place a term to my own beliefs on immigration and the American Identity: Pluralism. For a while, and even more so as I read this excerpt, I also questioned the idea of America being a “melting pot.” While a melting pot may be a concoction of various yet individual parts, its purpose is to use these parts to create something new. This is the problem with configuring a single American Identity. There is a lack of clarity on what the melting pot should create. Should there be a single American race or an overall acceptance of all races? In the end, I find myself following mainly transcultural ideals as opposed to nativist ones.

Immigrants in New York City in the New Millenium by Nancy Foner

While Vecoli’s writing focused on the effects of immigration on creating an American Identity, Foner decided to hone in on something much more local: immigration and the “New York Identity.” By that I refer to Foner’s vivid illustrations of the intertwined relationship between immigration and the culture of NYC. She begins by noting the biggest pull that NYC offered to immigrants: having friends and family members already living here. While several push factors may have existed in home countries, having familiar faces made the transition bearable and even appealing. She goes on to mention how NYC is a close knit immigrant city, with immigrants existing in families up to 3 or 4 generations ago. Immigrants, and children of immigrants, also appear widely in the city, including government positions. They are not localized. Although she does mention that certain professions are stereotypical for certain ethnicities, she also shows how newer and educated immigrants are able to attain better jobs. Various education systems, CUNY being one that is mentioned, have made this possible. Finally, a noticeable theme is how immigrants have added to the overall culture of NYC. Out of neighborhoods that house various ethnic groups, things such as the cuisine, places of worship and business have been established and enjoyed by the community.

One line from Foner truly stood out to me. It was, “New York is also appealing because outsiders do not stand out.” If one needed proof to support the “Melting Pot” idea, he or she should look toward NYC. Even though it has a distinct culture, this culture can be enjoyed by anyone, without the requirement of abandoning his or her own traditions. It seems that while an American Identity cannot be established, a New York one has.

The Next Generation Emerges by Philip Kasinitz, John H. Mollenkopf, Mary C. Waters

The city is ours for the taking, or so this excerpt suggests. Although many immigrants live in New York, the article notes that it is the second generation (or in some cases the “1.5 generation” referring to people who emigrated at a young age) who will play an influential role in this city’s future. This piece notes how the culture among this generation is unique. The generation has assimilated quickly, and even has identified themselves not merely an Americans, but also as New Yorkers. Though the generation may share a common culture, some racial separations exist, as seen through education, social and political situations. I found it interesting how cultural ideals could exist even in something as ordinary as school. While I was aware that at times, certain ethnic groups excelled over others academically, I never focused on the cultural affect. The type of school, its benefits, and even its location were subject to cultural ideals. Moving on to jobs, I found it noteworthy that children of immigrants generally do not take “immigrant jobs,” with some even refusing low wage or nonmainstream professions. I question if it is an idea that is instilled by their parents’ principles or something relating to the second-generation NYC culture. The excerpt argues that any dramatic economic turns can harshly affect the second-generation. It is an idea that I have never truly considered. Those of the second-generation who have encountered success do not truly have a safety net. Odds are they have moved on further than their parents. Cutbacks even in education can take a toll on the emerging generation.

One theme I identified throughout this reading was the parental effect on children. Although my generation will have the most influence over NYC’s future, each of us is subject to our own parent’s influence. From their personal and cultural ideals to even their legal status, parents have an affect over the decisions we make, ergo over the city.

In the first article, “The Significance of Immigration in the Formation of an American Identity” by Rudolph J. Vecoli, the author focuses on how the American Identity is always changing due to the large waves of immigrants that have come from all over the world to America, the most recent one starting in the late 1960s. He talks about the different views on being a “nation” that have come over time and what it means to belong in a nation. The majority of the original colonists were Protestant Englishmen that, through Enlightenment ideals, formed the United States of America. Those that were born on American soil would have the birthright of being an American citizen, and foreigners had the option of becoming citizens through naturalization. Although this is a new and progressive idea, it was also unprogressive in the fact that these ideals only corresponded to only “a free white person.” In reality, America, from the first day, was a nation divided in groups by culture, religion, and race.

The article makes me uneasy with the fact that there have always been nativist movements that try to prevent immigrant influence on the American identity. There has been a constant cycle of hate towards new immigrants because the native’s feel that the immigrants don’t bring any good qualities with them. This happened the Irish Catholic when they came, the Chinese, Southern/Eastern Europeans, and now Latin Americans. It baffles me that people fear change in the American identity when it began as just a concept of sovereignty towards the American government. Breeding this hate towards the newcomers just increases racism and discrimination without actually trying to solve the problem. In present time, there is a lot of hate towards Latinos for taking jobs, but instead of hating Latinos, there should be a movement to prevent corporations from being allowed to abuse the workers’ legal status to acquire cheap labor without  providing them any benefits.

The studies done in “Immigrants In New York City in the New Millennium” and “The Next Generation Emerges” also interested me because of the responses that some of the 2^nd generation Americans gave. In both they stated that they wouldn’t want to work where their parents worked because of the bad conditions and bad pay. They also did not want to work in the same field because it was stereotypical for a person of their race to work there. There is a feeling of resentment to that job because it has a negative association with their race. There is also some interpersonal racism for some of African ancestry. It is painful for them to be identified by the public as “black” instead of African, Jamaican, or West Indian. It is unsettling that being perceived as this causes lackluster opportunities in education and employment. New York City may not have the most nativist ideology, but it still has prejudice and discrimination in its street, and fortunately the newest generations of Americans have been able to use this ethnic diversity to further themselves, and, at the same time, improve the city.

Through all this hate, many of these foreigners of different backgrounds have been able to rally their communities to participate in local government so that they have a voice in how they are treated. The 2^nd generation Americans are more accepting of each other and they see that having a foreign background is a positive thing. I hope that fellow children of immigrants are able to learn from the past to improve the nation that we call home, and to escape the cycle of mistreating the newest waves of immigrants. In the past, attempting to force an American identity has resulted in bad situations for whole generations of people.

Immigration has increased significantly over the years. In the mid 1900s, New York City consisted of mainly Europeans. In the 2000s, however, it consisted mainly of people from Latin America, Caribbean and Asia. Immigrants are attracted to New York due to better employment, wages and living standards. In some circumstances people are forced to migrate to other regions of the world due to political instability and oppression. For example, Liberians had to leave their homes because of the civil wars taking place.

An interesting idea about immigration is that it can never stop. Once one person immigrates to New York then his/her friends would want to follow and so on. Families and friends want to stay together so they follow each other to where ever they are going, Another factor that induces people to migrate is that there are long established ethnic communities that would welcome them. For example, West Indians settle in New York because there is a long established West Indian community.

As more and more immigrants come to New York then ethnic communities will expand. What is strange about this phenomenon is that even though there will be denser ethnic settlements there will also be a rise to polyethnic neighborhoods. This is contributed to the fact of public transit runs through most of the dense ethnic communities. This mixes all the ethnicities currently residing in New York and thus gives rise to multiethnic neighborhoods.

The government also provides services that can assist immigrants in establishing a more stable lifestyle. There are a range of social, health, and educational services. One example is CUNY. CUNY is an affordable education that is offered to basically everyone. CUNY also offers programs such as SEEK that helps families with lower income. The government is influencing immigrants to not only stay but also to contribute to the society.

Immigrants that reside in New York sometimes contribute to political affairs. For example, Mayor Bloomberg made trips to Israel and the Dominican Republic to gain votes from the immigrant population that lives in New York. Political leaders are recognizing the impact of immigrants as individuals in society due to the constant increase in the number of immigrants.

The longer immigrants stay in New York the more they adapt to the American culture. People refer this to a term called the melting pot effect  which is a mixing of a group of ethnically diverse people to form a new race, the American race. I personally, disagree with this concept because I think it is just another form of assimilating. Immigrants are slowly adapting to the American culture and with each generation they become more Americanized. But what does being American actually mean? Well, doing what an American would do. However, how do we know what a typical American would do. I think this idea of being an American is generated through the media. The media emphasizes sports like American football and foods like hamburgers. Doing all of these things does not make someone an American. I think just living in American makes you an American.

Whenever the talk of immigration and “what generation of American are you” arises, I always feel it is hard to pinpoint where my family and I fit in. Going by my father’s paternal side, I would be a sixth generation American. My great, great, great grandfather was an Irish Catholic immigrant who arrived in America right before the Civil War. His son would go on to be one of the many European immigrants who worked on the Holland Tunnel. On my mother’s side though, my grandfather emigrated from Italy to America in the 1940s. These familial ties really give me an outsider’s perspective on many of the topics mentioned throughout the three articles, mainly because I am so far removed from the effects of immigration and assimilation. The only connection I do have is that on both my parent’s sides, surnames that were too complicated were changed. I don’t have any experience with a giving up or blending of culture (depending on your point of view) since my ethnic background isn’t too close to me. When I am asked what I consider my background to be, I usually just say American.

I think my lack of background plays into what my definition of “a melting pot” is. Unlike the many attackers in the Vecoli article, I never felt a “melting pot” meant that many unique cultures were melted down to try to create one assimilated culture. Like a classmate had also mentioned, I always felt a melting pot was more of a stew, where all these different cultures would meet and exchange ideas and celebrations, further enriching each unique one. My interpretation is not based on any personal experience of my own, but more on what I have seen. Growing up in Brooklyn, I was never under the impression that certain peoples kept to themselves. I felt there were always exchanges between many different people with many different backgrounds happening on every block that I walked down. A great example of this is illustrated by Avenue U, a street that runs along through a large part of Brooklyn. If you travel far enough down Avenue U, you can see many different cultures coexisting; English storefronts shift to Chinese storefronts which continue to shift to Russian storefronts. It truly is a sight to see.

Something that caught my attention in the Nancy Foner article was how many different culturally distinct neighborhoods are only minutes away from where I live. I live in a small neighborhood in south Brooklyn that contains people of mostly Irish, Italian, German and Jewish descent. Meanwhile, a few blocks away is the neighborhood of Flatbush, which contains a large community of peoples with different Caribbean cultures. Also right near me are the neighborhoods of Sheepshead Bay and Brighton beach. According to the article, both of these neighborhoods have large communities of Russian Jews, many of which helped change and revitalize large sections of the neighborhood. I knew about these neighborhoods well before this class, but I never saw them as culturally distinct. The Russian pool halls of Brighton Beach and the “West Indian network of privatized passenger vans,” more commonly known as Dollar Vans, always felt like the normal blend of culture that is Brooklyn, New York.

Mohamed Mohamed

As an immigrant, much of what was said in the readings is very relatable. People first migrated to the New World for political, economic, and even religious reasons. The same reasons continue to drive thousands of immigrants into the United States. My grandfather first moved to the United States seeking economic stability. He managed to bring my father over a couple years later. After spending more than a decade in the States my father thought that it was time to bring the family. The initial intent was that this was just a vacation, then its back to life in Yemen. However, the educational opportunities made it clear that we settle in.

Like the readings mentioned, settling in in New York City was not difficult for us. We were quickly welcomed by Arab immigrants and were directed to apartments where we can find our communities. . We then lived in a small community that shared the same culture and religion. Our neighbors were from the same country and some were even from the same village. Our friends were of the same faith and spoke the same language. We all even had the same goal: to become important people of society and not just taxi drivers and store clerks.

One dilemma that the readings barely went over is the identity crisis that young immigrants go through. For example, the readings extensively speak about the adult immigrants and the second-generation immigrants. How the US-born immigrants are more willing to embrace an American culture while their parents still dream of going back to their mother country. However, the immigrants that came to the states at a very young age were not much represented in the texts. I first arrived to New York when I was seven years of age. Since then I never went back to where I was born. I lived most of my life in America but I still have childhood memories that make Yemen dear to me. Furthermore, I find myself trapped between being either too “Americanized” or not “American enough”. For example, when I entered the Grocery store the other day the guy on the register had a really difficult time noticing that we were from the same country. I eventually had to break the ice and said something in Arabic. His facial expression was that of disappointment. He and many other Yemenis I met think that I have lost my “true” culture and tradition and that I am too “Americanized” based on the way I dress or talk. On the other hand when people notice me praying in the park or when I have a hard time pronouncing a four syllable word I suddenly become un-American.

Nonetheless everything else said about immigrants and New York City being the most diverse place on earth was very well written. Truly as a New Yorker one must embrace and accept this diversity. It is this diversity that makes New York so great and it is this diversity that keeps attracting more immigrants.

What does it mean to be an American? That was the question that was going through my mind as I was reading the essays. To be honest, I don’t know what the real answer is, but I have thought about this question multiple times. Last year in the Arts in New York City class, I went to the Museum of Chinese in America for my final presentation. This museum has an exhibition that focuses on the Chinese American experience from early trade to today. It showed the particularly rocky experience of Chinese Americans and how they dealt with the discrimination and exclusion. One of the questions that was raised by the exhibition was, what does it mean to be an American?

“You are American by birth.” It’s a notion saying that, if a person is born on American soil, that person is automatically an American. This is a really neat concept, but this didn’t really apply to the Chinese Americans during the exclusion period. Even if they were native born, Chinese citizens had to carry their identification papers everywhere they went, or they would risk deportation. A Chinese American that was given citizenship at that time was not treated as one. It seemed really odd to me when I read that the Americans at that time were complaining about immigrant groups not assimilating when they were actively denying Chinese Americans a place in society. This discrimination and exclusion towards Chinese Americans pushed Chinese Americans to form their own communities which maintains stronger ties to their homeland than many other immigrant groups.

To the Chinese Americans, there were no melting pot. Chinese Americans were just an ingredient deemed unworthy to even enter the pot. That was until the exclusion period ended. Chinatown opened up to the rest of society and it was the first view of Chinese Americans. Chinatown was a popular destination for tourism, grocery, and “exotic” Chinese food. Chinese cuisine was changed. Dishes such as chop suey or kung pao chicken aren’t genuine Chinese food, but were created for the purpose of attracting customers. That is what I believe it means to be American. It means a group coming into a society and responding to the society to create a unique culture that incorporates both the cultures of the homeland and the new society.

Being a second-generation American myself, I found the messages in both “The Next Generation Emerges” and “Immigrants in New York City in the New Millennium” of particular interest. My dad came to America about 30 years ago from Peru in search of a more successful life and someways down the road I was born. Though I was born here and am technically American, I’ve always considered my self Peruvian when asked about. However, that’s not to say that I don’t have my own identity as an American. I feel blessed that I can have multiple identities. As the second-generation born Russian woman in Kasinitz’s article pointed out I “like being able to keep and appreciate those things in my culture that I enjoy and that I think are beautiful, and, at the same time, being able to change those thing which I think are bad.” The result is a unique blending of identities like the one that is so often glorified through the image of a melting pot.

Though I think the melting pot image is an appropriate one, I disagree with how it has developed throughout our nation’s history. As Vecoli points out in “The Significance of Immigration in the Formation of an American Identity,” all too often the idea of a melting pot has been used to strip immigrants of their identities from their home countries. Instead of mixing together all cultures into a beautiful new American culture, the melting pot is used to force the assimilation of immigrants into a culture deemed acceptable by a hegemony.

It is true, Vecoli adds, that this old image of a melting pot is begging to fade and people are immigrants are now maintaining stronger ties to their respective cultures, but the end result is not there yet. I really like the image put forth by Horace Kallen of an orchestra where “ethnic group is the natural instrument… and the harmony and dissonances and discords of them all make up the symphony of civilization.” This is the ideal future that I think we should all strive for. One of the best parts of America is this blending of cultures in a way that no other nation can hope to compete with. And it is for the reason that I can’t quite comprehend why there seems to be anxiety throughout America over the idea of a declining white majority and an increasing mixed minority. If anything, this should signify that we are finally beginning to reach this end goal of a perfectly blended culture where the distinctions between majority and minority no longer exist.

I also found it really interesting in Kasinitz’s article how he illustrated the shift of mentality from first generation immigrants to second generation immigrants. The article mentions that second generation immigrants aren’t willing to settle for the jobs currently occupied by their parents. Most second generation immigrants see those jobs as “immigrant jobs” and would rather distance themselves from that mentality. I believe that this is a good thing because it means that firstly, they no longer see themselves as immigrants but in fact Americans with a dual identity, and secondly, by not settling for mediocrity, they are setting themselves up to be something more and will most likely significantly contribute to the progression of civilization as a whole.

Its almost exciting to think that our potential as a nation has not yet been reached. There is still so much left for us to strive for in terms of society and civilization. Granted, our ancestors strayed a little off track with their efforts at assimilation, but we now have the chance to create a new American identity through a blending of various cultures where there will no longer be a majority or a minority, but instead one people.