We have already discussed the various push and pull factors that tie the Caribbean and the United States together when discussing emigration and immigration. Economic incentives are among the most powerful incentives around; namely due to the prestige that inhabiting a higher economic strata can bring not only the individual, but the family and, by proxy, the community. Advances with regards to transportation, communication and remittence-sending (is there a business for this?) have allowed for immigrants across the Caribbean to maintain close connections with their family back home. Transnationalism has forever changed the dynamic of immigration, people are forming networks across continents that further strengthens the sense of community between all ex-patriots. As a little aside I had no idea people from the Caribbean settled in Canada, the temperature difference seems like it’d be a bit insane.

Sad to say, immigrants from the West Indies haven’t had an easy ride coming to America. People of a dark complexion tend to get lumped together into one group even though there might not be anything linking two people together besides an abundance of melanin. To elucidate my point, as soon as white people heard that black people would soon be moving into the area they cut and ran because of the notion that as soon as the darker people moved in the value of their property would drop. This is called white flight and the exodus of white people into the suburbs paved the way for more and more people of West Indies ancestry to fill the now vacated houses. Unfortunately for our migrant friends, big banks don’t like to let money flow into these recently immigrant filled areas; this exclusionary practice is known as redlining. People from the West Indies were generally treated the same way American blacks were/are treated; poorly.

Moving on to the concept of “trust networks”, my personal opinion is that it may be beneficial in the short term but the reliance of the family upon the migrant will eventually prove detrimental. Having to balance carving out a niche for yourself while simultaneously supporting a family can’t be easy. Remittences are a risky business, especially when one can’t keep an eye on what the family might be doing with this money. I’m aware of how terrible this sounds but I’m not about to send my hard earned fancy American money back home without some sort of guarantee that it’s going to some worthy purpose. This might be because I’m a pragmatist but my general point remains, there is no way to tell what the people back home are doing with the money unless you go back there yourself.

This concept of having and maintaining a trust network was new for me. I have family that still lives in Italy but no one here sends anything back, the people there seem to be doing alright. They used to send back massive hunks of cheese seemingly for no reason, not like a need a reason to receive fancy cheese or anything.

Nancy Foner’s essay entitled “West Indian Migration to New York: An Overview” provided an excellent synopsis of the issues that we’ve been discussing since the beginning of the semester. Her use of census data along with specific stories provided a great look into the ways that major shifts in West Indian immigrant populations affected people in their daily lives. As this writing was meant to introduce a collection of writings from a book that I have yet to read, I feel that some of the very specific details- such as where she explains certain authors’ use of language- were lost on me. Overall, Foner’s essay did a great job of recapping the information we’ve learned in the semester and presenting the history that culminates in widespread transnational migration today.

“New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network” by Karen Fog Olwig was one of my favorite academic writings of the semester. I love the way that she completely zeroed in on the experience of one family and then magnified their experiences to highlight bigger societal issues. I find this approach to writing both challenging and effective, if done properly. The challenge of such writing is ensuring that the experiences about which one writes are not extremely isolated events so that readers can relate. If this is done well, the piece smoothly flows from the micro view to the macro view without implying that the world revolves around the subject.

The most compelling part in Olwig’s writing was the underlying discussion on the after effects of desegregation. Though the 1960s and 70s saw great revolution in terms of legislation, the work of eradicating racism from the American psyche was not- and is not- complete. The institutionalization of racism in the mid 20^th century made simple tasks, such as applying for housing loans, nearly impossible for blacks in America. By using the stories from the descendants of the subjects- William and Marie- Olwig portrayed issues like these in a very tangible way.

Lastly, I found Tilly’s writing on “Trust Networks in Transnational Migration” very lively and informative. Before reading the paper, I found this topic uninteresting because I felt that trust networks being at the center of transnational migration was not new news. However, through his personal experiences and statistical data, I felt that reading this paper gave me a bird’s eye view of the topic. Seeing that most of the Caribbean economy depended on the money that family member sent home was shocking. Though I’d realized that most families depend on remittances in some form or another, having statistical data to quantify this dependence was eye opening.

Foner’s “West Indian Migration to NY: An Overview” gives a broad range of topics that we have been discussing throughout the course. She first assesses the Caribbean population’s large influence over the city and their transnational nature. She distinguishes them from American or other ethnic blacks, and focuses mainly on Anglo-Caribbean peoples, which she includes Guyana and Belize. She then starts to analyze the economic/political situation in the Caribbean that lead into its transnational lifestyle. Basically, she describes the diaspora of immigrants who came to NY for better economic opportunities while maintaining ties to the homeland through trust networks. These ties are maintained through emerging communication/travel technology, which help communication, relationship, economic, and family problems. Another result is the spreading political influence globally, as Caribbean in NY participate and decide political issues within America and their homeland. But with transnationalism also comes with a sense of heightened nationalism and racial segregation as it focusing on differentiating people based on shared identity of language, culture, religion, and the sense of home. She also shows the diaspora’s marginalization as Caribbean people struggle as blacks within an existing black and stratified population.

Olwig’s “New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network” examines the often over looked sides of transnational migration by recording a Jamaican family’s progression internationally over multiple generations. She also states how New York acts as a hub for this globally spread population. Her theory challenges previous theories of assimilation and trans-nationalism as a more linear process. The Jamaican family has members in Jamaica, Britain, America, and Canada. They keep in touch through trust networks, sending children to Jamaica or jeans to Britain. They originally lived in Harlem and would move to various parts of Brooklyn.  They have an Afro-European background and have, on average, lighter skin, so in America they usually tried to live in white, middle class communities, in which they did experience racism. However, when they move, the community would soon become more black and the family also felt uncomfortable. After two generations of NYC acting as the locality, the family began to disperse and NYC was no longer the hub. Family had moved back to Jamaica to build a hotel, went to Britain, went to other parts of the United States for job opportunities, or married a Canadian. This story shows how multi-faceted transnational can be, not just linear processes.

Tilly’s “Trust Networks in Transnational Migration” mainly focuses on Latin populations, but expressed the important function of trust networks and gave a more in depth analysis of its methods. Trust networks and remittances passed through these passages often support development within developing countries where major immigrant populations come from. These networks must be long term, based on trust and the risk factor involved, and shared identity- which results in increased nationalism and ethnic divides that may benefit or harm the groups based on race and class. It mainly operates on an honor system, hence the trust, with potential lost of trust and family if broken. The flow of money is essential,but also constitutes social insurance and power, allowing for several backup plans. As generations stay longer in new lands, these networks may disintegrate and traditional ethnic roles and beliefs are challenged within these once strong ethnic enclaves.

Adrian Horczak

People of New York

Professor Jennifer Lutton

March 12, 2015

Reading Journal 7

There has been a large flow of West Indian people to the United States, especially to New York City. West Indian Migration to New York discusses what has fueled this migration and how New York has become an important place for West Indians. In fact, someone would learn more about their culture in New York than in a large city in the Caribbean. Another topic covered in this reading is that West Indians must cope with being categorized the same way as Americans of African decent. White Americans expect them to live in African American neighborhoods which are rife with crime and lack good schools, and West Indians value education. West Indian migrants were not expecting this much discrimination, since the people who live in the Caribbean are practically all black. West Indians feel proud of their ethnicity, while being looked down upon because of it. They try to assert their ethnic identities to claim that they are different from African Americans.

In New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network, Karen Olwig talks with migrant families to trace their experiences in New York. Through the people she studies migration to New York City, which is equivalent to the study of the creation of the United States of America. Olwig explains that many family members inhabited the places West Indians moved to. These kinds of areas encouraged the development of West Indian culture. On the other hand, family members that settled outside of New York were scattered in different areas across North America.

Charles Tilly’s Trust Networks in Transnational Migration describes what an important role trust networks play in migrant families. It describes how so many people must trust the members of their family that go to the United States of America to send remittances. Contrarily to what most believe, people do not cut ties with family when they immigrate. Instead, they try to make their families in the Caribbean financially secure. Together the family can work towards a common goal like buying land or funding a trip for the whole family to eventually come to the United States. Long distance migration is especially risky for trust networks because it is hard to keep contact over long distances, and there are no professional contracts to keep promises. For families in which members do not migrate far, the trust networks are more popular since people can go back and forth easily relaying information and delivering money. These trust networks often function among several families of the same background, and they make certain jobs available for people of those trust networks. However, sometimes the jobs available only provide low wages, so it is important for trust networks to adapt to make members in it prosper.

I live with immigrant parents who plan a trip to Poland every two or three years to visit their family. They own a building there and when they go to Poland, they pick up the money my grandparents pick up from rent. My parents have to trust my grandparents will give them the money they collect. Since trust networks are mainly among family members, it only seems natural that trust will be very important in their relationship.

Often people mistake me, a Polish American for being Russian American because Poles and Russians look alike and their languages are similar. It must be more frustrating for West Indians since people look down upon them for thinking they are African Americans.

Transnationalism, as we discussed in class, is when migrants hold on to strong ties from more than one country at the same time. The reasons for this happening include the unstable political and economic conditions in the home country, the racism in the current country, and over-expectations of the success in the new country. This led immigrants to maintain ties to multiple countries in case the need for migration arise. This transnationalism is further reinforced by technology. With new technology such as online banking, internet, and transportation (jet planes), communication and interaction between countries are more common. Remittance is a transfer of money by a foreign worker to someone in their home country, and was identified with transnationalism. The act of remittance itself is very interesting and made me raise some questions regarding it.

What I wanted to know first was, how much money leaves the United States each year in the form of remittances, and which recipient country receives the most? A quick look at the World Bank website and it revealed that in 2012, an estimated total of 528 billion US dollars were exchanged between countries in the form of remittances. Of that sum, foreign workers in the United States alone sent out 123 billion dollars. Some Caribbean countries received very little, about 6 million in remittances. This is probably because of the relatively small size. Larger Caribbean countries such as Jamaica received about 2.1 billion. Haiti received 1.6 billion and the Dominican Republic received 3.5 billion. The top two recipient countries were India and China with 69 billion and 60 billion dollars respectively. However, we must take into account that both China and India have a much higher population, which would indicate more transnational networks. The World Bank also reports that many countries do not report remittance data, and some remittances are sent through informal means.

Remittances have a huge influence on developing countries. The money these countries receive helps the economy, spurring economic growth. By having a stronger economy, the country can play a larger role in the global economy. This benefits all parties. However, the effects can also be negative. Families who receive remittances have a higher standard of living when compared to those who don’t. this creates a big gap in society.

West Indian Migration to New York further explores the concept of transnationalism, specifically in relation to West Indians, whose migration to New York in recent years has been quite substantial: so substantial that more West Indians immigrate to New York State than any other group. Their movement here has aroused much discussion of how they fit in socially, racially, and economically.

What I found most interesting was the relationship between African Americans and West Indian blacks. When West Indian blacks move here, they are automatically placed into the same racial category as African Americans, but this is not really fair. Back in the Caribbean, West Indians are not really used to the sort of treatment that African Americans receive here; when they eventually move here, they are greeted with racism and “lumped together” with African Americans. As a result of this, hate crimes have been committed against West Indians in the past few decades. Also, the author notes that the living arrangements of West Indians are also heavy affected by none other than the color of their skin. When more West Indians move into a certain area, it causes white people to leave and more African American blacks to move in as well, leading to completely segregated neighborhoods. I feel like it is pretty disheartening that, if this truly is a legitimate phenomenon, people would be willing to go through the arduous process of moving for the reason that people of different skin color move next to them.

One thing that I found a bit strange about this section was the following sentence: “It is not unusual for whites to cross the street or clutch their handbags when they see a young black man approach—and they do not stop to wonder whether the man is West Indian or African American.” Well by that logic, they don’t stop to wonder whether he is West Indian, African American, African, or even Brazilian. I’m just not sure of the point the author is trying to make here. Is she trying to say that African Americans pose more of a threat? If so, that’s simply an unfair connection. The most reliable contributor to an increase in the crime rate is increased poverty.

In New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network, I was really fascinated by how the author was able to tell the story of the three families and tie in their stories in a way that truly showed their Caribbean pride and heritage. In the interview with Bill, the author asks him whether or not he was disappointed with his experience of the United States. His response indicated that he was happy that he had lived in the U.S. because, essentially, it opened him up to all sorts of people, allowing him to go to other parts of the world with more ease. I find that to be a bit of a contrast to my experience. I think this is largely due to the fact that he was, in the first place, a foreigner in the United States. For him, the United States was just a medium through which to open up cultural doors; for me, or more so for other “stereotypical” Americans, I have the culture but I’m seen through an “American” lens by people whom with I interact with overseas. Foreigners in America, at least in my experience, are . This negatively affects the way I am able to experience certain countries.

In Trust Networks in New York, the intricacies of trust networks are examined and rationalized. Trust networks play a very large role in both sending and receiving countries both economically and socially. The author clearly defines trust networks by the quality that individuals in such networks are not only part of a network between them and their immediate family and friends, but that members of such networks are expected to be part of a community of people who must help each other. For something to be a trust network, “members of trust networks … place major valued collective enterprises such as the preservation of their faith, placement of their children, provisions for their old age, and protection of personal secrets at risk” to other group members’ untrustworthy qualities. Without trust networks, and a sense of transnationalism amongst immigrants, the major sending countries would inevitably witness their own demise as their population dwindles, and economic activity is not sufficient. The reading describes that transnational immigrants remain loyal to their home countries and active in supporting the economic and political stability of their countries as well, as members of trust networks are also often voters in their homelands.

Economically speaking, immigrants are not only involved in sending over remittances, they are basically expected to. One example given in the passage, a Mexican village called Ticuani is examined. In Ticuani, it turns out that more people born there are currently living abroad, mostly in New York, than those who are there currently. This loss of home population has transformed the community and its economy, giving rise to an economy that survives on the donations and remittances sent by those abroad. As a small village, there had to be work obligations that constituents had to meet, otherwise things wouldn’t get done. Since so many were living abroad, these members made up their obligations through the process of sending direct financial help. At one point, as the town was in need of a new water system, a Committee threatened households whom it deemed were able to pay a $300 tax, and who did not pay, with no water in their Ticuani homes. Not surprisingly, almost everyone paid. Whether this displays true loyalty to their homeland or simply submitting to the demands of some powerful political body, it does show that the group pressure in trust network allows such demands to be made. No individual wants to be untrustworthy. If individuals do show signs of untrustworthiness, they are immediately excised from said network. People in these trust networks can be ostracized simply for giving more attention to new American friends.

What I am amazed by is the ability for these people who have uprooted their lives in their home country, who came from modest means, and can now contribute financially to other people. But as the author says in the end of the passage, the benefits of trust networks are dwindling for members. The immense pressure and apparent lack of economic mobility that comes along with being a member makes it seem unlikely that these networks will survive unless they adapt.

The major emphasis of this week’s reading was on New York, and how it was such an important central focal point for immigrants coming over from the Caribbean region. The article mostly focused on the West Indians, and how these groups of individuals gradually formed what we today know as transmigrants. In the first article, the migration of the West Indians was summarized by stating the important factors that affected these individuals. One important factor that led them to move in the first place was the horrible economical conditions back in their home country which led to unemployment, limited resources, and scarce opportunity to better their life. Once having left their home countries, these individuals faced another major factor of racism and segregation in New York (where most of the immigrants arrived) This unwelcoming environment allowed the newly migrated immigrants to miss their homes even more because despite it being horrible in terms of financial status, at least they were well respected back home. Many of these individuals were given a cumulative identity of just being “West Indians” and they were failed to be recognized as being their own unique identity. This nativism and racism that these individuals faced, allowed them to keep strong ties with their home countries, thus forming the transnational networks that spanned across numerous countries.

These transnational networks were emphasized in the third reading, especially in financial terms. The title of the article “Trust Networks” concisely gets the major point across that these networks were strong ties with their home country, and with people back home, thus increasing their level of trust between the individuals. One of the major reasons of these transnational networks was to get money from one point to another point. As mentioned in the reading, remittances were crucial for people back home, and even people in New York. Personally I was astonished how remittances were sent from home countries to individuals in U.S, however, it makes sense that these individuals needed help in starting up their life in some place completely new, and where they faced racism/ segregation. Many of these individuals relied on these transnational networks just to survive, which emphasizes how they relied on so much trust. These networks considering their capability, were quite remarkable because at some points, they involved the transfer of billions of dollars. Many families relied on the money being sent from other countries in the form of remittances, to survive in their current economic slump. These networks involved numerous individuals, thus if one person were to ruin the general flow of the money, it would devastate many families. These networks involved the lending and transfer of money, and if fraud actions were committed by few individuals, it would hurt many, thus it empathizes the importance of trust. A personal example would be that when my family moved from Afghanistan to India to immediately escape the war conditions. Afterwards, half of our family migrated to the U.S, while the other half stayed in India momentarily. During this time, my older brother and sister sent money to us every month from America, until eventually, we migrated to America as well. This emphasizes my family’s personal transnational network, and even though we all live in America, we still have ties with our home countries of Afghanistan and India, hence transnational.

The second article was the most intriguing in my opinion, considering the way Olwig conducted her research based on personal interviews. However, although many other individuals have conducted interviews and used them as viable results, the other individuals mostly correlate the interviews, and state their findings in a summarized manner, combining numerous interviews. However, Olwig’s article treated the interviews as unique examples in her article, and actually stated the personal experiences of families she interviewed in a distinct manner in her article, to describe the complex action of migration. Another aspect of the article that was intriguing was how Olwig started the article by stating how she will debunk the definition of migration, being that it is only the act of moving from one country to another. However, Olwig emphasizes that the process of migration is much more complex, involving many other important factors, and I agree with her based on my personal experiences when migrating to the U.S. Olwig states that the process of migration does not end when one person arrives at a different country, that is just one step of migration. Migration involves all the hardships that the individuals face before migrating, during their actual act of moving, and even after they arrive, when they are attempting to assimilate into the setting which is inevitably unwelcoming because of the racism and segregation there. The process of migration is much more complex, because during the time, it wasn’t a short occurrence, but it was a gradual life changing period of time.

Tilly’s Trust Networks in Transnational Migration considers trust networks, the impact of which had not been studied on a large scale. Despite this, trust networks have had very significant effects on the economies of the US as well as foreign countries. In 2002, remittances to the Caribbean accounted for a fifth of the world total, and that is just counting official remittances. Many of these trust networks allow money and goods to bypass official channels which is one of the purposes for these networks.

The main reason for these networks derives from an immigrants purpose for migrating. One major reason to migrate to the US is for the economic opportunities. Once an immigrant earns money, he can send money back to family he might have left behind. This purpose of this money may be to take care of his family, or to elevate their standard of living. However, there must be a certain confidence that this hard earned money will be used for the purposes intended by the immigrant. There must be trust. Many other points are also placed within the network. These include the channels through which money and goods are moving, whether it be a family member, a friend, or official transportation services.

Once these networks are firmly established, so too are the roles of their participants. An immigrant will be working hard to send money and goods over to the homeland. The family member received this money and goods are often expected to take care of other family members, or use the money to build a house, repair a house. Sometimes this is used to show the society that they have become financially established.

Trust networks can also be passed onto the second generation. Children who grow up experiencing the workings of the network may be expected to uphold the network once they grow older. However, a network may sometimes be lost on the second generation. When a family becomes established in a new country, they may lose the need to maintain these social and economic ties.

This week we read the article West Indian Migration to New York: An Overview by Nancy Foner. This article generally summarized the migration of West Indians or Caribbean’s to New York. She states the reasons that caused West Indians to leave their home countries and move to New York as “Scarce resources, overpopulation, high unemployment and underemployment, limited opportunities for advancement—these have long spurred West Indians to look abroad…” Once the movement of people had begun, transnational networks were and continue to be essential. These were emphasized greatly in this week’s readings. The migrants keep strong and vibrant connections to their home country and family members elsewhere. Another big factor in the experience of West Indians is race and ethnicity because their blackness affected their reception in New York and elsewhere.

This week we also read New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network by Karen Fog Olwig. This article outlines how important the transnational networks are to transnational migrants. These manifest themselves in several ways. There is the economic aspect, in which remittances are sent from the new country back to family members back in their place of origin. There is also money set from the home country to the United States. Family members send money to younger people that are studying or to a family member that wants to buy a house. The family members also help direct flow of migrating relatives to places where there is favorable or guaranteed employment.

Another important role they played was that of childcare. When Caribbean people left their countries of origin they couldn’t afford to bring the entire family, so the head of the household would often move leaving the rest of the family behind. The children of that family would stay behind and remain with relatives until the entire family could move. This also went the opposite way, where the families abroad would sent their children back to the home country for a more strict education or to reconnect with their culture.

In the article, Olwig uses personal interviews with West Indian migrants to extrapolate the experience in a micro view to that of a macro view. The story of Bill was especially interesting. His family was an upper-middle class family in Jamaica and they decided to move to New York for a better future. But upon arriving they realized that they weren’t as welcome as they thought they would be. They were always lumped in with other West Indians and they hated that because back in the Caribbean they were perceived as much different than all the others. His family moved to white neighborhood but always the neighborhood would become predominantly West Indian. It is an interesting story of having to struggle with one’s identity when they are not perceived the way that they want to be.

The last article we read this week was Trust Networks in Transnational Migration by Charles Tilly. This article focused more on the transnational networks that are established by migrating peoples. Tilly starts by showing that the money sent abroad in the form of remittances does not have a negligible effect. There are huge amounts of money moving through transnational networks all the time, the estimate given being $60 billion in a year. It shows the amount of dependence and trust that people have on these networks. They are essential to the survival of many families caught in the transnational migrant situation.

The members of the transnational networks take huge risks in placing so much trust in other. For example, they will lend family members money for a house, education, or wedding. These people could so easily lose all their money but still have trust in members of the network. Tilly argues that these networks make their members form extreme bonds of trust with one another. Simultaneously, with all the trust that is inherent in these transnational networks and with all the benefits, come many obligations. The members must comply with their role in the network and must always be in constant motion

In Nancy Foner’s article, “West Indian Migration to New York”, the many consequences of black Caribbean immigrants moving into the city are discussed and analyzed. Why are these immigrants coming in large numbers to New York City and how are they impacting and altering the city? How are the second-generation families being affected by their community surroundings? As Foner explains, the Caribbean immigrants who came from the British colonies left their native countries for many reasons. Slavery and colonial rule were the main reasons why the Caribbean families still faced economic instability and financial crisis. Overpopulation and the influence and dependence on world powers led high unemployment rates to force the young Caribbean population to New York and other port cities. New York was an especially popular port city since many cargos would drop off fruits and other goods to the main port cities. This created a trade network and route that Caribbean immigrants could take to reach their new destinations.

The establishment of transnational networks vastly impacted the Caribbean families and the community of New York City. Many of the immigrants would write letters to their families and send them on the cargo ships, they would send money back home to their families in the native countries, they would bring other family members from the native countries to the city with opportunities of job employment, etc. These connections helped establish many cultural businesses that impacted the community, such as transcontinental banks and information centers to help the influx of immigrants. The women were the main key in keeping these networks alive and strong. They were responsible for writing letters home and bringing more family members from their native countries to New York City. This helped create financial stability in the city; all the family members lived in close proximity with each other and this allowed them to help each other during harsh times. Families would send their kids back to the native countries at certain times during their childhood to remind the kids of their cultural history and heritage, thus strengthening the ties that these Caribbean immigrants kept to their native countries. As the years went on, technological advances also aided and strengthened these transcontinental ties. Telephone lines allowed immigrants and families to directly talk to one another, thus informing each other about politics and other worldly affairs. Once the native countries formed stabilized political systems, politicians focused their attentions on Caribbean immigrants for political support back in the country. Some families even moved on to other countries, such as Britain or Canada, from New York City and still kept ties to people in each of these countries.

As time went on, racial equality started to develop as the United States government banned racism. However, black West Indians were still forced to live in the poor communities as the white families left the area. The Caribbean people were provided horrible government services; low budget schools, small houses, etc. This push to make all the black people live together in the same area caused many racial tensions between the black West Indians and the native African Americans. These people all tended to view themselves as different from each other. However, with their arrival to New York City, they were categorized into one large group of blacks and this created more racial hierarchies within the community. They started to form their own organizations as they tried to compete with each other for jobs and other resources. It is interesting to note that Foner explains a certain scenario that tended to happen as the second generation formed their own cultural differences. With their less prominent accent, it was hard for community members to differentiate between Caribbean immigrants and black natives. This tended to harm the second-generation Caribbean people because their ethnic status was considered higher than the native blacks in the community at that time. Without the accents, these Caribbean second-generation kids were sometimes mistaken for native blacks, which fueled their anger and resentment. The Caribbean population has come a long way as they influenced many of the neighborhoods in New York City, such as Harlem, Flatbush, Crown Heights, etc.

In Karen Fog Olwig’s article “New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network” shows perspectives of how the Caribbean immigrants are integrated into society. One perspective claims that certain immigrants become integrated into separate subcultures of the community rather than the mainstream American society. Another critical approach explains the wide range of connections that Caribbean immigrants tend to keep over their lifetime. They keep their connections to the native country they come from and to many other countries that they probably lived in for a while, such as Britain or Canada.

In the first family that the author interviewed, the family was a middle class fishing family who lived in the Jamaican society. Marie, who was the mother of 8 children, raised her kids in a European fashioned house; they had to speak proper English grammar, they had proper names, and a nice educational background. This family was driven to migrate due to their drive for proper education for their kids. This interview showed how family connections worked overseas. Uncles that were present in America would help the kids receive the papers to come to America in order to receive their education. The family placed pressure on some of the children to become doctors and lawyers; all their earnings went into funding this education because they wanted their children to have a nice profession. The older brother Bill helped his younger siblings to come to New York. The whole family started working in the same corporation that Bill was working at. This showed how transcontinental family ties helped provide job opportunities for many of the other family members.

The communities that these Caribbean immigrants lived in were friendly and close knit; everyone knew each other. However, the surrounding white neighborhoods around the Caribbean neighborhoods were more foreboding and unwelcoming. The children faced racism in school and it was hard for them to comprehend the fact that it was hard for them to gain high wage jobs. White families started to leave the communities as more black people moved into the area. The white families were concerned that their house values would go down and that they were threatened by the presence of blacks in their community. However, the younger generations in the 1970s started to move to other states in the Americas. These younger people never were able to identify with their American culture or their Caribbean culture, putting them at crossroads in their lives.

In Charles Tilly’s article “Trust Networks in Transnational Migration”, many prior notions about immigrants are debuted. Many people believe that immigrants cut off ties with their native countries when they move to a new country. However, statistics show that large amounts of remittances are passed along the routes between the United States of America and to the poor developing countries. These “trust networks” influence the politics and economics of many areas. They are networks in which immigrants place their resources at a risk for the long-term benefit for the whole family. These resources can include exchanging of money, goods, and services. In New York, the Salvadoran immigrants, for example, send their money and goods between the native country and their current country through the viajeros. Viajeros are people who frequently travel between two countries and help insure social control over the area. Wire services were very important to Latin American migrants in the United States of America. These trust networks came with a price. If you failed or refused to help out family or community members, you were ostracized and shunned from the community for being a deserter. Transcontinental ties had lasting impacts as they brought more families to the Americas and affected how the immigrant communities in New York City developed.

This weeks readings kind of reinforced the ideas from last weeks. The idea that I’m talking about obviously being transnationalism. A quick recap of last week explored what it meant to be a transnational. Traditionally people think that transnationals drop all relations with their home country in favor of the fruits of a new country. However, the word has been redefined to refer to people who maintain a dual identity for two countries.  “Trust Networks in Transnational Migration” focuses more on the unifying theme of money in migration from one country to another.

The trust networks that Tilly describes involve a sending of remittances from family members in more profitable countries such as the United States to their home countries, particularly in Latin America and the Caribbean as this article examines. An important aspect to this trust network is the ability for migrants to find successful foundations for their trust networks. Tilly elaborates that migrants tend to find narrow opportunities in for work, housing, sociability, and welfare often due to levels of discrimination found in modern day society. He continues that when these needs are met, the trust network flourishes and migrants can maintain strong ties with their families back home until the point when, hopefully, more family members can make the transition to the new country. However, when these needs are not met, the system fails and transnational ties are not so easily maintained.

Another major aspect of trust networks that Tilly points out is the importance of a second generation to continue out a particular network. However, this opportunity is often limited by the “social segregation or integration of the immigrant stream at the destination.” Often times, as previously mentioned, when opportunities are limited due to unfair discrimination of immigrants, the trust network ultimately fails.

This article particularly spoke out to me for multiple reasons. For starters, my dad was a first generation immigrant from Peru, just like Tilly, when he made the trip to New York City. He was the first of his family to make the trek, and any other possibilities of other family members coming over depended on his success. Like other immigrants he often sent home remittances to help support his family. He became very lucky with the opportunities he found and the family he started and eventually he paved the way for his brother, my tio, to make the trip as well. Soon after my tio was able to settle and start a family of his own all because of the trust network that my father had started many years prior.

The other reason this article spoke out to me was, that being a second generation immigrant, I need to find my own successful opportunities to possibly start my own trust networks. Though we don’t quite share the same strong connections that my father does with Peru, my brothers and I could play a pivotal role in the ability of our first cousins to make the trip up to New York. Furthermore, I feel safe knowing that within one of the greatest cities in the world, my opportunities will never be limited. I think it is safe to say that there is very limited, if any, segregation of society for different races such as myself. This leaves me with all the opportunity I could possibly need to be successful in my life as a second generation immigrant and to build a successful trust network of my own.

West Indian Migration to New York by Nancy Foner

I found that Foner’s introduction was a great recap to the topic of transnationalism. In it, she not only provides an adept “overview” of the West Indian migration to New York City, but also dives into the two large themes of race and transnationalism. Like other readings that we tackled, Foner mentions that many West Indians initially traveled to the US in search of a better life, a life that was not available in their country of origin. New York, being a center of trade (she specifically mentions bananas and tourism), opened its doors to many immigrants. Once various networks were established, immigrants were steadily coming in until they met obstacles due to legislation and the depression. Interestingly, she goes on to mention the comparison of previous West Indian migrations to the modern wave that started after 1965. The communities are dramatically different, with NYC currently having a much larger black population, and today’s Caribbean peoples not coming from British colonialism. West Indian populations have extended out of Harlem and Brooklyn into the Bronx and southern Queens.

Foner then focuses on “Transnational Ties,” where she immediately turns to Watkins-Owens to detail the trust that exists within remittances, and the importance women have played in migrating families. She notes two important factors that allow these ties to maintain strength: technology and communication. Technology allows for faster and easier travel, while contact via telephones allowed migrants to get the latest news and even “participate in family discussions” (8). Many immigrants were also active in the political realm, not only within New York City but also within the Caribbean. Some even used their political pull in New York to provide aid to their native village or town. She discusses how Ticuani immigrants, who were later discussed in Olwig’s article, were able to raise over $100,000 for a pipe system. The idea of maintaining transnational ties helps redefine the apparently stereotypical image of immigrants, where they leave an oppressive country, cut any ties necessary, and move to America in search of opportunity. Possibly since I grew up in a family that has maintained a strong transnational network, I never had this view of immigrants. Yet Foner, and also the other readings we have examined, clearly dissects the process of establishing these transnational networks and their benefits.

Foner finally moves on to discourse the themes of race and ethnicity. She notes how modern Caribbean immigrants face a lower level of discrimination than earlier immigrants. This particularly exists among young black Caribbean men, who face discrimination for whites and police officers. One interesting thing she discusses is the notion of being “black” that is enforced on Caribbean immigrants when they enter America. The idea of being black only refers to certain peoples within the Caribbean (for example in Jamaica it refers mostly to impoverished, darker skinned people). Yet, in New York City nearly every West Indian immigrant was simply considered black.

New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network by Karen Olwig

In her article, Olwig takes the idea of transnational ties and analyzes it through a specific family. Her style of approach is via direct interview questions, as opposed to being a fly on the wall. Her questions focused on the family’s history, and their experiences and reasons for emigrating from Jamaica. The family’s main reason for emigrating was to pursue opportunities that were not available within Jamaica. This did not necessarily mean migrating to the United States, as one of the sons, Henry, left for Great Britain to join the RAF. It was an already established kinship network that brought the son Bill to New York. Bill migrated in order to pursue his academic and professional goals of becoming a doctor. Although his dreams did not come to fruition, he made a decent career for himself. He is representative of the ideal of many Caribbean parents hoping to send their children to a different country in order to live a better life (having transnational ties allows this to be possible).

Once the entire family migrated, they ended up living in the same neighborhood within Brooklyn. Their social life was similar to the one they held in Jamaica: a tight, knit family, living within close proximity of each other. Cousins became more like siblings, and the family met often for various occasions. Having this close relations within the family led to the creation of trust and further strengthen the kinship network. Even when the family began to disperse, domestically and internationally, they kept in touch via modern forms of communication.

Within the new neighborhood the family met several instances of racism and discrimination. White people began to move out, fearing that the property values of their homes would drop with the influx of the new population. Racism even existed strongly within the schools, and molded immigrants from a young age. In terms of education, the parents were mostly in charge, and strongly suggested the path in which their children would choose. These paths too were affected by discrimination. When one daughter, Kathy, decided to become a daughter, her mother clearly reminded her that American Ballet at the time was a strictly white profession. She instead offered a job with more stability and possible economic benefits.

One thing to note is the general deterioration over time of the neighborhoods that house these influxes of immigrants. At first the family noted the pristine state in which the neighborhood was kept when they first arrived. Yet, as the whites began to move out, these areas became redlined. The neighborhood, having lost economic interest, and the failure of the black community to unite under a single political force, eventually decayed. As one member put it, it has gone “drug crazy… in the dark you must look over your shoulder all the time” (153).

Despite the opportunities that New York had to offer, many family members had left. Mostly the second-generation, who have built up their economic and social foundation, were able to move out to other states and countries. Some even felt that they truly did not fit in (i.e. Bill), lacking a true social connection within New York, and decided to return to Jamaica.

Trust Networks in Transnational Migration by Charles Tilly

In his article, Tilly focuses on the importance of trust that defines transnational networks and the effects of remittances. Remittances are key for the families of immigrant who remained in the motherland. In 2004, as Tilly notes, 69% of the $182 billion of remittances went to developing countries.

The interesting idea of trust networks is that they can only exist with stakes. Although being kin or part of an organization are initially signs of a trust network, Tilly argues, “Trust consists of playing valued outcomes at risk of others’ malfeasance, mistakes or failures” (7). Once again, Tilly notes that these networks are based on communication, and handle the flow of goods and services. Risks exist in long distance migration, as Tilly says, yet the existence of a trust network mitigates those risks.

Remittances go hand in hand with trust networks. It can help reorganize the wealth and power of the native people, reform their lives (possibly to a point where they are solely dependent on remittances), and even create new trust networks. This was the case of the Ticuani people from Mexico. Once again, this is the case where a New York organization of Ticuani immigrants was able to raise enough money, notably more than the local government was able to, in order to create a new pipe system. After this occurred, however, the Ticuani immigrants continued to remain in contact with their homeland. The payed specific taxes, and even sent their children to visit. The Salvadoran immigrants are a similar case. They utilized viajeros, or people who frequently traveled between two countries. These viajeros were able to transport remittances, which were usually “goods, money or information.”

One point I found interesting is that certain families become molded around trust networks and remittances. It comes to a point where they teach their children to “praise” those who send remittances. It was noted how children would anxiously take trips to the post office, hoping for some money or a letter. It does not stop there however; these children would then go on to imagine a day where they too can send remittances to their home country.

Tilly ends off on a strong note. He displays how lacking a trust network opens immigrants up to a variety of obstacles. Specifically they have no safety net, socially or economically.

The three articles that we had to read for this week were very interesting and relatable to my experience as a 1.5-generation immigrant from an immigrant Ecuadorian family. I see my family’s immigrant experience reflected in the discussions that we have in class about transnationalism and how immigrants maintain connections and networks with people in their homeland to help ease their transition to the United States and also as a way to feel a sense of belonging. Also, when we talk about remittances, I cannot help but think about people in my church who send remittances to their families in their homeland and parents from foreign countries who send money to their children here in New York City to help them (as much as possible) to pay for a post-secondary education and living expenses. One personal example that I always think of is my Aunt Patricia. She immigrated to New York City in the mid 1990’s and left behind her firstborn son under the care of her older sister. She sends remittances to her sister every single week to help pay for my cousin’s expenses. As extended family, we can only imagine the pain it must be to have a son so far away and not be able to go back and visit because of her current situation in the United States. The perception that the United States is a place full of opportunities is so true and common amongst immigrants. Even when they arrive and see that the situation here is bad because of racism, inability to adapt and different ideologies, as well as economic situations, immigrants still tend to think that they are better off than they would be in their homelands. This may be true for certain cases but not for others. I guess that it depends on the person’s experience in this nation. It is interesting to me how two people can go through similar situations and based on a person’s background, personality and way of thinking, the two people can have two completely different outcomes. Some immigrants end up establishing a life in the United States and form a dual identity where they become loyal to both their native country’s culture and New York City’s culture. Others feel that it is too much of a burden to deal with the problems that come with being an immigrant in New York and eventually decide to move back. However, even in those cases we see that first that person procreates or establishes a network that would look after them once they move back to their homeland.

In “West Indian Migration in New York: An Overview,” Nancy Foner discusses West Indian immigration to the United States. She talks about different aspects of this immigration and explores the effects of Caribbean immigration both in New York City and in their homelands. She starts out her text by stating that more than 40% of New York City’s black population can trace their origins back to the West Indies. This came as a shocker to me because I had always thought that the black population in New York City consisted mostly of descendants of black southerners. Then she proceeds to talk about how this group of people highlights transnationalism. What surprised me the most is that despite the fact that these people are present in New York in huge numbers; they have been ignored in immigration debates. You would think that people would converse about this group of people the most. I think that Foner is very accurate when she mentions that the main reasons why many West Indians abandon their homelands and immigrate elsewhere are because of scarce resources, overpopulation, high unemployment, limited opportunities for advancement and inflation. I agree with her when she says that small island economies cannot fulfill the needs of all the people. This brings up the idea of whether or not Caribbean islands are truly independent. Even though they say they are, they often depend on bigger countries and remittances from the black diaspora abroad to aid them. Immigrants are usually brought to the U.S. by family members or members of transnational networks. It is interesting to see how technological advancements have made the establishment and maintenance of transnational networks an actual thing. Nowadays, Facebook, facetime, email, telephone, and Skype have made immediate communication between family members in two different parts of the world possible. Better technology has even shaped people’s expectations of how New York is before they migrate.

Foner also brings up the idea of racism and discrimination based on skin color in her text. I find it interesting how two different groups of people can be combined into one huge group of people based solely on skin color. It just shows me that some people can be very ignorant and superficial. Although physical appearance is often the main quality that we stereotypically associate with a race, there is more than just skin color. Culture, political ideas, religion all form the identity of a group of people. Many times educated West Indian immigrants would want to move to white neighborhoods to disassociate themselves from the native black community, however, white people did not think that the immigrants were any better so they would move away. It is like Naomi said in class, people leaving the cafeteria table when the weird kid arrives. This experience must have been terrible because it basically showed the immigrants that there were clear social barriers based on race and everyone had their pre-established place. No one was allowed to move up the social ladder. This racism and discrimination were the reasons why many Caribbean immigrants began to establish transnational networks. They needed to feel a sense of belonging and pride. Otherwise all they had was suffering because of racism, segregation and imposed inferiority. However, because white people would move out when West Indian immigrants moved into their neighborhoods and black people would move in, West Indians became part of the broader African American community.

The Civil Rights Movement played a significant role in the lives of Caribbean immigrants and their families. After the Civil Rights Movement, they had access to a wider array of jobs in the mainstream economy and were often considered better and more educated than native blacks. This change in tolerance vs. intolerance of West Indian immigrants by the American public changed the perception of West Indian descendants towards the United States. It is interesting to see how second and third generations of West Indians will identify themselves. I find it highly insulting and very sad that many people believed that dark skin is associated with poverty. It is interesting to see how West Indian immigrants do better than African American because of connections and the way they portray themselves to the public as more reliable. Overall, Foner discusses the idea that Caribbean immigration to New York City has created a distinction and changed people’s perception of a monolithic blackness. Even within the Caribbean community, there is so much diversity. Many times I wondered why some people who were from Caribbean nations that I ignorantly believed were mainly Christian, identified as Hindus. It turns out that people from Southeast Asia were taken to the Caribbean as slaves. In conclusion, this article cleared up some misconceptions I had and reminded me of discussions we have had in class.

In “New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network,” Karen Fog Olwig discusses a Caribbean immigrant family’s experience in New York City. She goes really in-depth into this family’s life and goes from specifics to generalizations. Many people believe that immigrants are turned into free and upwardly mobile Americans. This is not the case. The process of incorporation is much more complex. I agree with the idea that many authors believe that transnationalism constitutes a form of resistance to being subordinated within a country like the U.S. People always look for a sense of belonging in a community. If they do not get that where they live, they will look for it in their place of origin or communities that they have had a history with. Like I mentioned before, many immigrant families see New York City as a place where their dreams can come true. Once they move to New York, they face the hardships that come with being an immigrant and thus establish kin or friend networks that will help them deal with the process of assimilation. I think of New York as a place where immigrants can transition to an American way of living. This city has so much diversity that people will not have a hard time adapting as opposed to trying to adapt to a place in the Midwest where most of the population is white.

I found it interesting how Olwig explicitly mentions the importance of familial networks. I guess since my family and my Aunt Patricia’s family are the only ones from our extended family that are currently residing in the U.S. we do not take into account the importance of familial networks. Religious networks and friend networks have been more important. But I guess that just has to do with our experience. In other cases, family plays an important role in helping people adapt and become assimilated into American society. Olwig brought up some West Indian cultural aspects that caught my attention. Proper manners are apparently very important in West Indian culture and they determine a person’s position in society (more so than skin color). Also, when the second generation does not meet their parents’ expectations, they feel really bad and are sometimes disowned. I only associated this with Chinese and Asian families. I also found it very interesting to see how the meaning and significance of New York changes from one generation to another. For the immigrants New York mean better educational, economic and social opportunities. For the immigrants’ children, New York was seen a springboard from whence they could establish a life somewhere else. It is interesting to see how according to the time they arrived to New York, their experience in schools, public places, interactions with natives and upbringing, some people fell in love with New York, some hated it and moved back and others moved to Europe.

In class, Professor said that most West Indian families were matrifocal. I never thought that women had such a high status in Caribbean culture. Also the fact that the family unit is central and important to immigration is very important. At church, I have learned the spiritual importance of families and how they are the foundations of society. But this article made me think how even in worldly things, families are important. An individual with familial support is stronger than an individual without familial support. I truly enjoyed reading Olwig’s article. The fact that she went from the micro to the macro was very unique. Articles like this one catch my attention more because I can relate my experience to the experiences described. It is an interesting and creative way to get a point across.

In “Trust Networks in Transnational Migration,” Tilly talks about the role that trust networks play in transnationalism. Family and friends on both ends have to trust each other in the sending and receiving of remittances. I was surprised when I read that remittances play a huge role in the economy of some of the receiving nations. My parents do not send remittances. They migrated to this country to work and pay off debts that they had in Ecuador. After they finished paying it, there was no reason to send remittances. Sometimes, they send money to their parents as birthday or mother/father’s day presents. However, it is not something that I see as common. But I guess that remittances are part of the lives of other people. Reading about this has awakened an interest in seeing to what extent trust networks play central parts in the organization, maintenance and transformations of long distance streams across the world. Tilly brings up the interesting idea that many people think of immigrants as one-way travelers that are desperate for work or welfare in a richer country and cut home ties as soon as possible in order to take advantage of the new country. This is not true. Many immigrants form dual identities and serve both their homeland and the country that they reside in. Both places have played a huge role in the lives of these people. However, I do agree with the idea that some immigrants may get stuck in trust networks only and this may limit the opportunities that they have. They may find themselves confined to niches that are only based on these networks, preventing them from growing as people and enjoying their lives. The emphasis of transnationalism demonstrates that the author knows 100% incorporation is impossible. Overall, I find this topic of transnationalism very interesting. This course has made me think about it in an in-depth sort of way.

This weeks readings by Olwig, Tilly, and Foner all explored the idea of transnationalism, kin and remittances. The authors discussed families moving from the Caribbean to, primarily, NYC. Olwig’s piece was my favorite because it really connected the reader to the three families and their history. The author did a great job of really understanding how the family spread through London, New York, Nova Scotia and Jamaica. I was able to relate to the family because my family, like many immigrants, left the homeland and went to NYC. Many family members then traveled outward to other states, countries, or returned back to the homeland, like Bill did. My family and I also experienced calling upon family members to the United States and helping them find jobs and homes.

Tilly’s work really emphasized the importance of trust networks. I hadn’t put much thought into this concept, but I’ve come to realize what a major role it plays in immigration and family life. Trust networks allow for migration, create a community, and allow family members to keep in touch with home countries. It’s a path for members to transfer goods and money to one another across borders, find jobs in new countries, and homes. This article also introduced remittances within trust networks. It was eye opening and very informative. Families often send back money to the home country, pay taxes, own property, and have a say in politics. My family, for example, still owned an apartment in our home country while living here. We had a slight role in the economy. In Israel, for example, there is currently an influx of wealthy French property owners who keep apartments in Israel. They add to the economy of the country and have caused apartment rates to skyrocket as demand increased.

Foner touched upon transnational ties, the changes in migration and racial prejudice. Foner discussed how migration has changed between the generation, and NYC was no longer the same. She brings up the point that the West Indian community has spread out from central Harlem to Crown Heights, Flatbush, into Queens and Northeast Bronx. Families no longer just go straight to Harlem and Bedford-Stuyvesant. People are further spread out, and it is true for people of all culture that migrate to NYC. The once Italian or Jewish neighborhoods have changed, and it is very common to see multicultural neighborhoods now. Foner also spoke about transnationalism, which was covered in the other articles as well. What I found to be original in her work, or just different from the other articles, was that she included “future research”. This was written in an anthropological angle, which differed from what we read before. Her suggestions opened up new questions and called to dig deeper into other cities and patterns of migrations.

Nancy Foner’s “West Indian Migration to New York” and Karen Fog Olwig’s “New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network” are two publications that transitioned the study of the first Caribbeans in America, specifically in New York, to the impact that this migration has had, both in their home nations and to the place that they moved to. Although many have been forces to migrate due to economic struggles, these migrants became important links to many transnational ties. The first migrants to foreign land go in search of opportunity and to help their families back at home. The first migrant leads to more migrants settling, some older in search for work, some who are children sent to go to school. These transnational networks cause the transfer of people, money, and goods. These transfers are made to benefit the network, both at the foreign countries, and at the origin country.

Olwig’s paper gave me a better understanding of transnational networks mostly because it was an anthropological angle. The Jamaican family that Olwig interviewed were fortunate enough to be of the middle class in Jamaica, and attempted to reach this same status in New York, but were unfortunately able to do so. In the one family, there were so many different reactions to the limitations placed on black Americans. Brooklyn became an area of the lower class, and the white Americans judged that the family belonged there because they were also black. They were lucky enough to build enough transnational ties that they could move to other states, Canada, Europe, or even back to Jamaica, and still have enough to own property there.

The later generations had through live through the racism as they grew up, and that probably fueled them to want to leave even more. The story of Kathy’s friend and her mom was horrendous, and a terrible thing to be exposed to as a child. All a kid could do is think to themselves “What is wrong with me?” and doubt themselves. Kathy’s family was lucky enough to be able to move to other places where there was less racism, but there are other migrants who are not so lucky. The less fortunate that can’t handle the racism move back to their home country, ashamed and disheartened. Others who can’t afford that or don’t want to face going home as a failure stay and slowly break their ties with their network. In Brown Girl, Brownstones by Paulle Marshall, Silla explained that what the white’s saw as lazy blacks, were actually blacks that were broken by the racism and hardships that the had to face. Thankfully there are political and social movements to help these people, but they focus more on forcing equality than helping the undermined.

Adding to the pressure on the transnational ties are the trust networks. Smaller trust networks make up a larger transnational network. There are many things that can go wrong on both ends of trust networks, however both have to trust in the other to do their part. Remittances, both to and from the transmigrant have to be in continuous flow to keep the trust up. A serious consequence for not sending back money or goods to those at home is that if they ever decide to go back home, they will not be well received. A person that has to go to a new place with a limited range of opportunity that the trust network gives will have a lot of pressure to succeed. I assume that the family that I have here that came from a small town in Ecuador is part of one trust network, although the tightest one is between my mom’s side of the family, most notably her brothers and sisters. Through this trust network, we are planning the marriage in Ecuador of my brother, who lives here, and his fiancé, who lives in Ecuador. This summer I will be a viajero who will transport goods from here to Ecuador and participate in my brother’s wedding.

Our readings on Tuesday focused on Transnationalism and the different familial and cultural networks that were established through it. In Foner’s introductory article, she reminded us how transnationalism and the large influx of West Indian migration began and continued on through the 20^th century. Social and economic problems, such as overpopulation, scare resources and high unemployment, along with the newly altered U.S. immigration law in 1965, lead to mass migration from the West Indies after a long period of reduced movements. New York’s availability of jobs combined with the ongoing “White Flight” in many predominantly white neighborhoods, lead to the perfect storm for large West Indian immigration into the city. Unlike earlier migration though, new technologies and cheap airfare prices enabled many displaced peoples to remain in contact with their home country. No longer did one need to reserve a phone to make an international call; international phone plans were aplenty and they were very affordable. Foner’s chapter definitely helped add context to the next chapter we read.

The chapter entitled New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network, by Karen Fog Olwig, took a look into the life of a particular Jamaican family that migrated to the United States in the mid-20^th century. The article followed the son of mixed Jamaican residents, who had roots in Portugal and Scotland, and how he eventually created this large family network in New York City. Bill, the aforementioned son of William and Marie, migrated to New York in pursuit of education. Bill was sort of a prodigy; his family had high hopes for him becoming a doctor and sent as much money as they could so that he can pay for his education. Unfortunately, Bill never did become a doctor. Economic demands led him to marry, start a family of his own and take up a managerial position in a large American firm. Yet, this perceived failure to Bill ended up becoming something much greater for the family. Bill’s position provided the perfect entryway for his family to immigrate to the U.S. With jobs in line for needing family members, Bill was able to spur the movement of much of his family to New York. There, a large family network was established, one where family members chipped in to make sure everyone was taken care of. I think the defining thing about this article is how Olwig paints New York City. Though it was a destination for many West Indian immigrants, New York was only the initial step in further migration for many Immigrants. As expressed through Bill’s family, New York helped many immigrants get settled so they can eventually migrate to where they truly wanted to be, whether it was another state in the United States or even an international locale such as London.

Building off of the family network studied in Olwig’s article, Charles Tilly’s article on Trust Networks in Transnational Migration provided a different perspective on how certain migrating peoples made it in America. His article first introduces remittances. Remittances are basically payments of money sent between people. In the context of this article, remittances are the money sent from and to migrants in America. The amount of money being sent between families is actually much larger than I thought, with the 27 billion dollars sent to Latin American and the Caribbean in 2002 making up 1.6% of the regions gross domestic product that year. These remittances aren’t always sent easily and this is where trust networks come in. Trust networks are exactly what they are called- networks based entirely on trust that serve as conduits for money and goods being exchanged between the regions. Remittances were sometimes delivered through these networks, along with other things such as certain local opportunities. These networks worked so well because many of those involved were risking the same things. If there was not enough cooperation within the trust network, no one received any benefits. As noted in the article, this did lead to some things that aren’t so great about trust networks. The rising exclusivity of these trust networks, due to the immense amount of trust and faith members would have to have in each other, lead to a division between people who were able to take part in these networks and those who did not have the opportunity. Some people were confined to small networks that put great constraints on how they could basically live their lives; limited members meant limited opportunities. In all, trust networks and family networks were immensely helpful in getting newly immigrated people on their feet and involved in American society, though certain divisions and detriments did arise.

Mohamed Mohamed

Both the readings from Nancy Foner and Karen Olwig highlight the importance of New York City as a node for immigrants. Karen Olwig tries to discover the transnationalization of the Caribbean immigrants in recent years through a different lens than the modern migration scholars. Olwig conducts her research through the personal history of individual immigrants which then give her an idea of the behavior of the general population. Through her research she shows the attachment many Caribbean have to New York and how their idea distinguishes them from the new batch of immigrants. Olwig explains that New York has changed from a settlement location in hopes of economic and social opportunity, to a center location for family life and a place that held childhood experience. However, New York did not always play the same role for every individual’s life. For example, Bill did not find the career he hoped to achieve but rather ended up moving back to Jamica. On the other hand, Charles was successful in establishing a career and therefore continued to view the city as a place of opportunity.

Furthermore, Olwig was able to discover a form of transnationalism other than economically driven. Immigrants from the West Indies have tried to distinguish themselves from race and class as a form of transnationalism. As immigrants continued to pour into New York many West Indies left so to not be lumped into their group. Kathy, for example, a West Indian who lives in California far from any family members explains that in New York she became racially aware of whom she was. She separated herself from the rest of the immigrant batch so to make it clear that she is more of an American. Kathy refers to New York as place of her childhood and as a place of kin networks. Another great example is Jane who not only left New York but also married into a white family in order to distinguish herself and to escape the racial tension experienced in New York.

The other reading from Charles Tilly gives us a sense of how important immigrant remittances are to the people back home. Remittances are payments that immigrants make to send back to the countries they immigrated from. Tilly explains that these remittances not only funded families but it also assisted businesses and religious institutions as well as politics in that country (the same politics that helps run the country). Tilly also explains that these remittances are large and amount to billions of dollars. Therefore, this support is arguably a significant factor in running these countries. Furthermore, this financial support also proves that these immigrants still hold strong ties with their homelands, which in turn builds trust networks. These trust networks have shown to remain strong and one-way immigrants keep these strong ties is by sending children back. Children are sent back and forth in order that the loyalty of the immigrant remains to the homeland.

I believe that this system will soon fail. As the generations continue on living in the United States the ties between homeland and immigrant will begin to slowly die off. The children growing up in United States will eventually identify as Americans and will no longer demonstrate their loyalty through remittances. This makes me question how the homelands will react to a large decline of remittances. We have seen how important of a role these remittances play in the development, progression, and survival of these countries, so how will they cope without this financial support?

New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network

New York was viewed as a place where immigrants could be turned into new citizens. This migration process would be complete when the immigrants become fully incorporated into the American society. An outcome is that the immigrants will be assimilated partially and will belong to a set of subcultures rather than the American society. “The result is that the present-day Caribbean population of New York is integrated into a transnational sociocultural system that is only partially grounded in American soil.” This means that the Caribbean population has ties to places other than America.

In this reading, there are three family networks of Caribbean origin that had the same ancestors. Over time the family have been scattered throughout the world, from Barbados to the Virgin Islands. New York played a role in the family network because it was a place that had a considerable amount of movement. The family network had roots in Jamaica and it began with William and Marie. William was born in a seaport and Marie was born in a small village. Together they had eight children but their roots wasn’t pure Jamaican. Marie’s paternal grandfather was from Portugal and William’s paternal grandfather moved from Scotland to Jamaica. This created a unique family network that has roots from European and Afro Jamaican descent.

Marie and William valued a good education for their children so they earned money to send their  children to the finest private schools. When Marie and William began struggling financially in Jamaica they sent their children, who traveled as sponsors from other relatives, to America. In America the children pursued a greater education. Bill, one of the children who went to America, was under a lot of pressure from his family because he was going to New York to become a doctor. A doctor position was a high point because it would raise the status of the Jamaican family. The family viewed profession over commerce.

New York was initially a place to go where families could find better educational and economical opportunities. However, it has changed to becoming more family orientated. Doreen, who lives in London, came to New York and found out that she was surrounded with family. Marie also moved back to New York to join her family. New York became the center stage for the family because of all the kin relations associated with it.

At first when the family moved to New York they lived in Harlem. As they improved financially, they moved to a better place in Brooklyn. Brooklyn was described as “pristine and beautiful.” It was also described as being safe due to the fact that police constantly patrolled the area. Everyone who lived in Brooklyn also seemed to have some type of profession. They were either a doctor, lawyer, teacher, etc. In Brooklyn, the family frequently visited one another about three times a week. Aside from the family circle, there was a problem of racism. The children experienced racism in schools because the schools were predominantly white. Kathy, for example, was forced to sit away from everyone else because of her skin color. In addition to the racism that the children had to face, they were also pressured by their families to pursue a respectable career. Kathy career choice was frowned upon because she chose dancing over becoming a doctor.

As the family became comfortable living in New York, the children wanted to leave. Kathy, for example, declined a full scholarship to a local school and decided to go to a school in Massachusetts with only a partial scholarship. This idea of leaving imitates middle class white families where the children want to become independent and make it on their own. Aside from the children, the parents also left. They felt like they didn’t belong in New York because they weren’t black nor white. They were considered foreigners and their accent distinguishes them from everyone else. This type of situation leaves them anonymous because they don’t have a strong American nor Jamaican identity.

West indian Migration to New York

The West Indian population has been exponentially increasing in New York for the past four decades. New York is described as being “Caribbeanized” because West Indians are the largest immigrant group in New York. The reason that there are so many Caribbeans in New York is because of “scarce resources, overpopulation, high unemployment, and underemployment,” in their home countries. Areas around New York and New York City itself, are popular destinations because of the influence of tourists and the import of bananas in the early twentieth century. This established New York as a migration center. West Indians were described as “migrating machines: sending networks that articulated with particular receiving networks in which new migrants could find jobs, housing, and sociability.”

The West Indian population coming in today is completely different from the population coming in years ago. The once British colonies have transformed under American influence. Immigrants now have a view of what American life is about before actually going there. The city’s population of West Indian have also majorly increased so that now new migrants are able to move into places where whites have moved out.

A uniting factor of all West Indian migrants is transnationalism. The West Indians that live in New York constantly send goods back to their families at home. There was this one barrel sent by a Trinidadian domestic worker that contained “three gallons of cooking oil, forty pounds of rice, twenty pounds of detergent, flour, tea, cocoa, toothpaste and other items.” This shows that even though West Indians reside in one place they still have a connection to another place. Transnationalism was also influenced with technology. In today’s world with the invention of airplanes and jets, it is easier, faster, and cheaper to fly back and forth. This only applies to the middle-class immigrants because for the lower class and undocumented, traveling is not easy. The invention of the telephone also helped influence transnationalism. The telephone allowed migrants to learn information regarding their family in another country immediately. This allows them to contribute or participate in any event in their country even if they are somewhere else.

Race and ethnicity is an important factor in the lives of West Indians. West Indians are always thought of as an ethnic group in a larger black population because they are constantly grouped with African Americans. However, after the civil rights movement, American whites became better informed about the situation. Race also influences where West Indians settle when they come to America. West Indians usually find a place where there is a kin connection because it makes them feel more comfortable and safe.

Trust Networks in Transnational Migration

A trust network is a group of people who are connected through similar ties and within these ties a person heavily relies on another, which creates a strong tie. Within these connections the people would have to go through long term interactions such as long distance trade, religion, etc. These connections include, “communication, mutual recognition, and shared participation in some activity, flows of goods or services, transmission of diseases, and other forms of consequential interaction.” These trust networks sometimes get damaged or even worse disappear in long distance migrations. What happens is that in these trust networks the people without other professional connections end up relying on the members of the trust networks. This causes chain-migration where people of the same village end up living together after migration. This puts the long term interactions at risk of failing.

Remittances plays a role in trust networks. Remittances alters the power and organization of a country, changes the lives of the citizens and it helps form a set of transnational trust network. Transnational migration provides a continuous flow of income in two communities. This is beneficial in most circumstances because the money that is transmitted helps fund projects. For example, Tuscanese New Yorkers helped fund two thirds of a new water system for a village. In doing this, they got involved in Ticuani politics. Trust networks are highly dependent on transnationalism. Transnationalism allows communities to function because the government of these communities do not provide enough financially to support certain projects. The two way stream of commerce allows migrants to get involved with their home country’s politics as well as their economy.

“West Indian Migration in New York: An Overview” – Foner

In her introduction, Nancy Foner discusses the reasons for as well as the phenomenon associated with West Indian migration to the United States, specifically New York City. Most people who emigrate from the Caribbean do so due to poor economic conditions, including unemployment and scarce resources. Most of these migrants come to New York City, contributing to a high proportion of West Indians in the city. Many come with the help of migrant networks and maintain many transnational ties while living here. These ties may manifest themselves with the exchange of letters or goods between the immigrants and relatives in the home country as well as through formal associations. Technology (e.g. cheap telephone, email, jet planes) facilitates these ties. Transnational ties even play a role in the politics of the home country and can extend beyond those ties between the United States and Caribbean.

West Indians are usually lumped together with African Americans because of skin color. As a result, they face some prejudice and discrimination and are subject to racial stereotyping. This puts barriers and constraints in the way of West Indians, especially when it comes down to where they live. West Indians are often segregated from whites as are African-Americans and live in communities where they can face minimal racism. There is also a process of racial turnover that occurs.

(1) Black families attempt to branch out from the communities they live in and move into white communities.

(2) As a result of prejudice, white families begin to move out and no new whites move in.

(3) Thus, communities become increasingly black, and the pattern of segregation is reinforced.

In these communities, West Indians are forced to live in areas with inferior schools and higher crime rates. This is a wake-up call for West Indians because they come from societies where being black is not a sign of inferiority. Thus, they have a different notion of race and are not overly concerned with it either. However, they have a strong ethnic identity and try to separate themselves from African Americans.

There is the question of what second-generation West Indians will identify as. They could adopt an ethnic identity, an immigrant identity, or an American identity (as African American). However, most identify as both West Indian and American.

Foner ends with numerous suggestions for future research. These topics include exploring the experiences of new immigrant cohorts, the role that religion plays for these migrants, and the experiences of East Indians from the Caribbean (among other topics).

I have known for a while that migrants exchange letters and other goods with family and friends in their home countries. However, I was surprised by how far some people took this (and how committed they were):

“One barrel sent by a Trinidadian domestic worker in the 1980s contained almost eight hundred dollars worth of goods, including three gallons of cooking oil, forty pounds of rice, twenty pounds of detergent, flour, tea, cocoa, toothpaste, and other items” (7).

Another point I want to touch on is identity awareness by “outsiders.” How do people (such as whites) see West Indians? Are they seen as belonging to the same group as African Americans? Or are they seen as an entirely different group? The author mentions that immigration from the West Indies is “chipping away at notions of a monolithic blackness.” Some West Indians emphasize their ethnic heritage to separate themselves from African Americans. But are they becoming more “visible” in light of this? This would make a nice point of study, similar to the ideas that Foner lays out at the end of the article.

Something I saw that was repeated throughout the article was the concept that context is important. One cannot simply compare two events, phenomenon, or groups without considering the context surrounding them (e.g. location, time period, and existing attitudes). For example, West Indians living here in New York City are distinct from those living in, say, Chicago. Although they may share the same roots, they live in completely different places and may have very distinct experiences. Thus, I can understand why Foner proposes such a study in her conclusion.

Overall, I was pleased with this article. It offered a “refresher” in West Indian migration patterns, the existence of transnational ties, and the race and ethnicity issues that West Indians face.

“New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network” – Olwig

In this chapter, Karen Fog Olwig discusses what New York City means to migrants from the Caribbean. It is a commonly-held stereotype of migration that a poor, neglected group of people migrate to a new country to achieve the American dream. These migrants are incorporated into American society, thus shedding their old identity and making them true Americans. However, this notion does not tell the whole story. There are two opposing theories:

(1) A segmented assimilation occurs, where migrants are incorporated into separate subcultures rather than mainstream American society.

(2) Migration occurs between places and crosscuts several countries. There exists a two-way flow of people, goods, money, and ideas. This represents incorporation into a transnational system.

New York is seen as migrants’ first encounter with American society as well as a point of transition. In a study of a single Jamaican family, members saw New York firstly as a destination to achieve their dreams (or, as the article puts it, “a major center of attraction”). They later saw it as a family center, where the whole family literally lived within walking distance of each other. As the family left New York, they saw it as a formative period in their lives. However, it was a place that was to be left behind because of family problems and because it deteriorated right before their eyes (in terms of racial acceptance and solidarity as well as the influx of low-class West Indian migrants).

I must start off by saying that I fully disagree with the incorporation notion (that is, the notion that states that migration is more of a one-way phenomenon with migrants cutting ties with their home countries and incorporating themselves fully into American society). If it were not for the maintenance of transnational ties, we would not see stores selling Caribbean food or parades celebrating West Indian culture. Indeed, migrants maintain, strengthen, and even celebrate ties to their home countries, while simultaneously incorporating (to a degree) into American society.

As was seen with the Jamaican family, New York City is not the place to end all migration. Instead, it is seen simply as a place, a transition into American living. The members of the Jamaican family eventually left New York and had no regrets in doing so. Some even went back to Jamaica.

I must agree with the author when she says that the incorporation notion is “closely tied to the cultural and societal interests of the migrant destination” (145). Incorporation would lead to a degree of nationalist/patriotic feeling directed toward the United States. This is understandably in the interests of the migrant destination itself (in this case, the United States). More patriotism leads to more loyalty to the country as well as a heightened identification with American values. However, this seems impossible (for the vast majority of migrants) due to various reasons (one of the biggest being racism and discrimination).

I particularly enjoyed the analysis of the Jamaican family. Instead of reciting an impersonal list of facts and statistics, the interviews gave the author’s ideas and the information more of a personal touch. It made the stories more relatable and (for me) allowed the author to get her point across more effectively.

“Trust Networks in Transnational Migration” – Tilly

This article discusses the role that trust networks play in transnational ties, especially in the sending and receiving of remittances. The author defines trust as an attitude or relationship that “consists of placing valued outcomes at risk to others’ malfeasance, mistakes, or failures” (7). Trust networks have a number of characteristics in common:

(1) There are a number of people who are connected via similar ties.

(2) The tie itself gives a person claims on the attention or aid of another.

(3) Members of the network are collectively carrying out long-term enterprises.

These transnational networks play a huge role in the lives of migrants. Members may seek out information and advice from these networks and/or rely on members to fulfill certain responsibilities.

According to the article, remittances made up about 1.6% of Latin America and the Caribbean’s gross domestic product. Remittances from hometown associations play a role in altering the organization of power in the hometown itself, as was seen in the case of Ticuani. Remittances also maintained the trust networks that were present and reinforced the remitter’s power and control over the money. These also upheld the remitter’s obligations, as those who did not follow through on these obligations were often criticized and shunned.

However, the author mentions that the presence of trust networks may limit the opportunities of migrants. Members may find themselves confined in niches that are based in these trust networks. Although these networks provide a sense of security and solidarity, they may limit the opportunities and overall futures of migrants.

The author starts off with a statement that was similar to one made in the last article (by Olwig):

“I do mean, however, to challenge popular images of immigrants as one-way travelers, desperate for work or welfare in a richer country, who cut home ties as soon as possible in order to take advantage of their own country” (4).

Here, as in the last article, the author is criticizing the incorporation notion of migration. This article, in particular, illustrates how migrants maintain connections to their home countries through the sending and receiving of remittances. I believe that the author actually did a good job in opposing the notion of incorporation and emphasizing the transnational ties that are actually present.

Although I like the author’s definition of trust, I would like to provide my own definition in order to supplement the one given in the article. To me, trust is an attitude toward a relationship where a party relies on another to fulfill their responsibilities and ensure that the relationship progresses smoothly. I believe that the emphasis should not be placed on the inherent risk in such activities but rather on the feeling of reliance that is present between both parties. In the case of remittances, one party relies on another to send a remittance (semi-)regularly in whatever way, shape, or form possible. By sending these remittances, the relationship between both parties is maintained and progresses smoothly, and the trust between the two parties is also maintained and may even grow.

“West indian Migration to New York”

The last four decades have engendered the largest west indian migration to New York. In numbers, about half a million west indians have emigrated to New York since 1965. Furthermore, the West Indian population is in fact the largest immigrant group in New York State. This massive West Indian population even exceeds that of actual caribbean islands. However, as overwhelming in numbers as they are, West Indians are still identified as black and thus they played a role in the civil rights movement in the United States. As we learned too, West Indians not only played roles in their new land, but also maintained transnational ties.

The reasons behind West Indian immigration are abundant. In many Caribbean Islands, there are “scarce resources, overpopulation, high unemployment, and underemployment.” Thus, West Indians, like any other people would, looked abroad for a better economic life. West Indians who could traveled abroad to many countries, but conclusively, the main place of attraction was New York City. By 1998, 8% of New York city’s massive population was West Indian, or about 600,000 West Indians. The reasons behind New York’s success as a West Indian attraction stretch back to when steamships brought goods, specifically fruit, from Caribbean Islands. Along with the fruit came West Indians who settled in the city, and as we have learned, began setting up immigrant networks that brought family and friends over from the home island. Furthermore, New York offered economic opportunity and was itself an attraction for all immigrants. Although, New York wasn’t all that perfect, with the underlying racism and prejudice that existed.

West Indians immigrants continue coming to New York City today. However, these West Indians are not coming from what were British Colonies. Rather, they are coming from more Americanized and modern places. Also, they are no longer arriving in the same New York City locations. Previously, West Indians arrived in the black capital of America: Harlem. Now however, West Indians are settled in Brooklyn, specifically in the areas of Flatbush and Crown Heights.

After the Civil Rights movement, West Indians migrating to New York had access to better jobs and education. One would think that these immigrants would take advantage of that and use it to be a part of the political spectrum. Rather, research has shown that these West Indians died down their Caribbean-ness and settled down as part of the black population. Today however, things are different as West Indian immigrants embrace their culture and background. They also use that culture in the political arena to impact both their districts in New York and the elections in their home island.

The political ties New York West Indians have with their homeland falls under the transnational category. Transnational ties existed at the moment West Indians landed foot in their new land. These ties included sending back goods, money, and even children for education or cultural experience. Today, these ties continue, but what’s more is that they are much easier to achieve due the transporting and communication technologies that exist.  However, just because they exist, doesn’t mean everyone has access to them. There are are still poor and undocumented immigrants that cannot participate in visiting or sending goods to the homeland. However, phoning relatives and friends in other countries in nearly widespread to every West Indian immigrant as the medium is cheap and easily accessible. Furthermore, political associations with Caribbean has today been facilitated through transportation and communication technologies. Political bases in New York can keep in contact with the headquarters in the Caribbean islands. Politicians can even take a short trip by plane to New York City to attend fundraisers or events for their own political party. Let us not forget that the immigrants living in New York still hold a Caribbean nationality and can participate in elections.

Caribbean networks in New York stretch beyond political associations however, with unofficial institutions founded in New York that raise money and support for projects in the Caribbean home island. There are also family networks which we learned about in class that help bring over family members from the Caribbean islands as the settled immigrants prepare employment and shelter.

Of Course, there is always some problems with immigrants coming to a country. With West Indians, that problem is racism. After the civil rights movements, there was less racism against blacks. However, racism was still existent. First and foremost, West Indians found themselves as being grouped in with African Americans, although the two groups were quite distinct. Furthermore, West Indians found that whites continued to discriminate against them through small examples. For instance, young black males found that women would clutch ther handbags when walking by. Furthermore, West Indians experience discrimination in real estate. Many times, West Indians are driven into black neighborhoods by real estate owners. Thus, they remain segregated from whites. Also, these neighborhoods are much worse off than white neighborhoods. By worse, the book refers to less upkeep, schools, and local economies. Research has found that West Indians coming to America have found themselves being aware of race for the first time. This is because the society groups them as “black,” while in their homelands, no such labeling was present. This angers many Caribbean islanders and is a large factor of the racism existing in New York City. This labeling leads to West Indians trying to distance themselves from blacks by holding onto their Caribbean culture and ethnicity.

Furthermore, this association with African Americans has led to constant comparisons between the two groups’ economic successes. Such comparisons only bear down stress on the identity of many West Indians. Second generation West Indianers are seen to be more linked to their Caribbean background as to maintain a sense of uniqueness in a place where they are constantly mislabeled. However, researchers believe that this identity crisis will soon be resolved. This is due to the belief that as West Indians continue coming into New York City,  they will be gaining more prominence and become more “visible” in society.

“New York as a Locality in a Global Family Network”

New York City was the place to be for West Indian immigrants in the 1960’s migrations. This was because New York offered many chances for employment and social mobility, but also because there was already a settled west Indian neighborhood that consisted of families who attracted their relatives. The migration process to New York was completed when immigrants were completely incorporated into the American Society. One result of this of process is that immigrants will assimilate to the foreign society, but only partially. This is because the immigrants continue to hold on to their past culture and form a transnational identity. As the article states, “the present-day Caribbean population of New York is integrated into a transnational sociocultural system that is only partially grounded in American soil.”

In this reading, three family networks are analyzed. These networks are composed of individuals of Caribbean origin that had the same ancestors. Through the generations,  the family became scattered throughout the world. For example, some family members lived in the Barbados while others in the Virgin Islands. New York played a role in this family network because it was a point of movement throughout the family. This family network had roots in Jamaica. The parents, William and Marie, were born in a seaport and was  a small village, respectively. Together they had eight children. The parent’s roots however, weren’t completely of Jamaican descent. Marie’s paternal grandfather was from Portugal and William’s paternal grandfather moved from Scotland to Jamaica. This created a unique family network that had roots in European and Caribbean.

Marie and William valued a good education. Thus, they worked hard to earn money so that they could send their children to private schools. When Marie and William began struggling financially in Jamaica, they sent their children. The children traveled under the sponsorship of other relatives and were sent to America. In America, the children pursued a greater education than the one they could find back in Jamaica. Bill, one of the children , was under a great deal of pressure from his family because he was going to New York to become a doctor. A doctor position was a prominent position that was seen as a high point because it would raise the status of the Jamaican family. Marie and William had viewed profession over commerce, which is understandable because a profession required a strong education that was rare to find in Jamaica.

New York was initially a place to go where families could find better educational and economical opportunities. However, it has changed to becoming more family orientated. In New York, many West Indian formed strong neighborhoods, specifically in Brooklyn where the whites slowly moved out to allow blacks to move into neighborhoods like Flatbush and Crown Heights. In this area’s, Caribbean communities bustled. Some of the children lived in New York, for example Marie. Meanwhile others, moved between both Jamaica and New York like Kathy. No matter however, in New York, the family surrounded itself with close relatives and friends whom were from the same niche back in Jamaica.

After some time, many of the younger generations began moving out of New York due to either family tragedy or in pursuit of a different education. Only a few remained in New York, for example Doreen. Meanwhile, Bill returned to Jamaica while his mother visited her children in many different parts of the world. This microstudy of a Jamaican family highlights the extensive family network that could be formed by West Indians. Such networks are usually overlooked by historians and thus the author is trying to highlight the se unknown trends of Caribbean migration.

“Trust Networks in Transnational Migrations”

75% of all remittences in Latin America and the Caribbean come from America. These numbers arise from the vast number of recent immigrants who send remittences to family back home. These remittences are valued to be worth billions and literally run some country’s economies. This underlies that migration isn’t a one way ticket, and that immigrants seek to maintain ties with their homes, many times through economic means. These transnational economic ties are founded of course, upon trust.  The economic stream of funds must hold trust in all participants to send remittences and that is the focus of this paper. These trust networks do much more than thinks. The remittences sent home not only fund family life, but businesses, child rearing, and religious and political commitment. Furthermore, these trust networks hold a certain risk in that those relying on remittences must believe that their oversees relatives will be able to send funds so that they can survive. Thus, these networks consist of strong ties as one group places its survival on the hard work of another. But, there is a distinction in one group’s survival, because it isn’t literal survival but rather one group is placing its children’s future or business in the hands of another. Trust networks have of course existed over thousands of years. But these were usually in the forms of institutions like churches. Never before have trust networks existed over such a number a of dispersed groups. However, both yield the same successful results.

The remittences gained from these trust networks have a great impact on their destination. An example was used of a small Mexican village (Ticuani) that relies on the constant flow of immigrants and remittences to maintain its growth, progression, and survival. Ticuanese New Yorkers all fulfill their immigrant obligations “by means of financial contributions
channeled to Mexico through a powerful New York-based committee of
emigrants.” These remittences were obliged by everyone, as institutions were formed to maintain those who did not pay in the U.S. did not receive the benefits in Ticuani. The second generation Ticuanese in New York however did not maintain as a strong a tie with their home town village, as expected. However, they still continued the flow of remittences. In the long run, there is speculation that such systems where one group in another country will directly fund their hometown will continue to exist, expand and multiply.

Another example was presented with Salvadorians in New York and El Salvador. On both sides of the immigrant spectrum, ties were maintained and remittences sent. Children were also moved between both places to maintain both cultures. Thus, Salvadorians rely on trust networks with immigrant friends and relatives. A questioner done on spanish immigrants further propelled the idea of trust networks when almost all participants claimed to prioritize sending remittences back home to support their families.

Thus, trust networks are both generous and obligatory. People who failed to send remittence were shunned and shamed by family and friends back home. Furthermore, shunned members of the networks lost the insurance a trust network holds in helping every member in need. Thus, trust networks are more than an obligation, but a necessity. This specifically applies to children who are constantly sent by their parents to America where they rely on members of a trust network to fund their stay and education, as given by the example of the Mendoza’s in San Diego.