In 1900 there were 60,000 African Americans in the city, 5,000 of which were foreign-born. By 1930 Manhattan was home to 224,000 African Americans including 40,000 foreign-born, and Harlem had the largest population of Caribbean immigrants. Prior to the popular migration to New York, Caribbean people mostly participated in interterritorial migration. This began after many were freed from slavery and moved away from their former plantations. However, there were several immediate issues that they encountered. Due to a lack of land reform, freed slaves had no real opportunities to be landowners, but instead were stuck as laborers. Additionally, the large volume of unemployed people made it very difficult to find available jobs. Eventually between 1904 and 1914, many moved to Panama to work on the Canal. It was in the Canal Zone that many Caribbean people first encountered American-style Jim Crow laws.

At the start of World War I, Caribbean people were immigrating to New York at the same time that native blacks were migrating from the southeastern seaboard. Additionally, blacks were being pushed upward towards Harlem, pulled by the availability of homes devised by Philip Payton and other African American real estate agents. The result was a rapid peopling of a black, heterogeneous Harlem. This new and upcoming community produced interesting reactions from blacks and whites.

Many African American leaders hoped that incoming blacks from both the South and the Caribbean would align with and contribute to the goals set for the entire race, many of which involved attaining higher social class. Some looked to Caribbean immigrants as models for the “representative negro” that all members of the race should aspire to imitate. W.E.B. Du Bois wrote that the Caribbean immigrants were sensible and hardworking people and referred to them as “cultural heroes”. On the other hand, many native blacks felt threatened by the immigrants, many of whom were educated. They feared that they would compete for jobs and their place in society. To assert superiority, some native blacks would form exclusive social groups and prevent Caribbean immigrants from joining.

Examining “race” as a social construct was a new concept to me, and it was interesting to see how it applied. Native blacks and Caribbean immigrants were both categorized as “black”, however, whites tended to treat Caribbean blacks better after realizing they were not native. Booker T. Washington spoke of a man who was trying to get a hotel room and the worker who spoke to him with great resentment, but upon realizing he was a Caribbean immigrant, the worker’s resentment was replaced with respect. Claude McKay recalled a time when he did not have on him his registration card and was arrested because he believed to be a draft dodger. When a judge heard that McKay was from Jamaica he complimented the country, referred to McKay as “sir”, and dismissed his case. Additionally, two black men on the train were asked to move to a Jim Crow car by the conductor, but when the conductor heard them speak Spanish he withdrew his request and began to treat them like any other passenger. This prompted some African American leaders to encourage blacks to get ahead by learning Spanish. Some native blacks could even benefit socially when they would be mistaken as immigrants. These incidents prove that race is just another way to categorize humans, and while it is helpful in many respects, it has produced a baseless hierarchy of worth many times throughout history.

Watkins-Owens sets out to prove that Harlem is simply not a “black” area, which should not be only known for its “Renaissance” of music and literature. She wishes to uncover Harlem’s diverse ethnic backgrounds and its development as a multi-faceted society throughout time, with focus on immigration  from the West Indies and their integration into American society. She leaves cultural achievements aside, and discusses  political, economical, and social problems ( like immigration policies, housing problems, limited occupational opportunities, and conflicts with African Americans) instead. Although the West Indie population was relatively small at that time, in comparison with other immigrant/ native groups, it still left a decisive impact on the formation of Harlem and American views on race. She also continuously narrows down her focus onto the women of the West Indies, so in a way her book also researches the feminism.

Before the creation of Harlem, Watkin- Owens tracks the immigrant movement from the West- Indies during the late 1800’s and early 1900’s. Colonialism forced the Caribbean people out of their homes because colonialists had claimed profitable land for themselves. In the beginning, they moved only between islands, then unto the Americas- specifically the Panama Canal. I found this to be one of the most interesting bits of information so far. I know about the Panama Canal since it is such a massive turning point in American history because it expedited trade and shows America’s exercise of power in a foreign country. The project was a huge undertaking, which involved influx of various peoples in its making. I had never realized that a majority of the labor was done by Caribbean people. I knew Chinese and Irish immigrants work to build the First transcontinental Railroad, so how I did I not know who built the Panama Canal- another landmark construction? I also find it appropriate how these low wage workers would use their “Panama Silver” to gain access to America, and how their work in the Panama Canal would act as an introductory course to American Society (“Jim Crow’). And the United Fruit Company, such a sweet sounding, benevolent name, acted as a monopoly of exporting Caribbean labor when it was no longer required in Panama. I find also find it interesting when her work focuses on women’s struggles and how women fought to correct/help it. Respect those women who saw girls lured away from their homes with false promises, then responded by making the White Rose Mission and the Welcome Stranger Committee to help empower girls. Complex immigration policies already made it difficult for women to improve their lives and needed support of men/ family.

“On to Harlem”- how cool learning how my school’s neighborhood was built. Apparently, its all thanks to a savvy realtor named Payne who would exploit a rivalry between landlords. One apartment building with black residents would soon become the entire neighborhood, as former inhabitants moved out. Harlem would soon become the draw for “elite” blacks, like W.E.B Du Bois, and became the place to be. Caribbean immigrants from San Juan Hill forged Harlem with native blacks, but they did not truly blend together. Americans had a better view of Caribbean people then native black, seen as harder working, “Model” immigrant. Caribbean people also distanced, and differentiated themselves from native blacks and vice versa. Caribbean immigrants are highly devoted to forming and building their own community. Since many people could not afford to own a home, there were many lodgers and they functioned on a form of loyalty credit. They strove to rise in society because most were educated, but they were mostly delegated to lower leveled jobs.

While reading through the first three chapters of Blood Relations I kept finding myself very surprised. During our first couple of class meetings, we placed a large focus on Assimilation. Without going into any specific definitions or examples, we focused mainly on the idea of immigrants “sacrificing” some of their cultural identity to adapt to the new, blooming culture of America. Many earlier immigrants were forced to throw away their home world traditions so they can be looked upon as actual citizens. Fast forwarding to Harlem in the early twentieth century, there seems to be a shift in this ideology. Many of the immigrants coming from the Caribbean Islands tried to do as much as they could to differentiate themselves from native black Americans. In fact, many even kept their native language or learned new ones just so they wouldn’t be piled into a broad category of second-class citizens. In Chapter 1, a small story was given on how a train conductor had asked a dark skinned Cuban immigrant to move to a Jim Crow train car. Once the conductor had heard the Cuban man speak Spanish though, he simply punched his ticket and “ ‘treated him just as he did the other passengers in the car.’ ” I thought this was pretty ironic; a racist system such as the one defined by the Jim Crow laws gave exceptions to dark-skinned peoples as long as they spoke a different language.

A lot of my confusion concerning the whole idea of Caribbean immigrants separating themselves from black Americans began to fade as I read through chapter 2. It became pretty clear, pretty fast, why Caribbean immigrants would do this. These new immigrants coming from a variety of different islands and countries were immediately perceived as superior to black Americans. Coming from colonies that were originally founded by European countries added credibility to this idea but most of the incoming immigrants came in with something to prove. Many Caribbean men, and surprising for the time, women, had some sort of formal education up to and sometimes exceeding the college level. This made them well more educated than the average black southerner who migrated from the North. Even those immigrants who weren’t as educated arrived with redeeming skills. Large portions of Caribbean immigrants were artisans. That is, they excelled in a certain skill that they used to provide for their family and themselves. Some of these skilled workers included cobblers, tailors and craftsmen. Even though the job market was very limited, Caribbean immigrants had a less difficult time finding suitable work. Women, who usually weren’t artisans, had a somewhat easy time finding work in other people’s homes.

Throughout my reading, one thing that I though about a lot was how was native black Americans in Harlem reacting to this whole situation. Were they resentful of Caribbean immigrants who turned their nose up at them? Or were they impressed and motivated to better themselves? I didn’t really come to an answer for this question, but I hope to find some sort of one in my further reading.

It’s interesting to see how discrimination against social groups assumes a different guise when talking about the Black community in New York City. It’s a strange thought to think that America’s historically most discriminated group of people, when put in the position of receiving immigrants into their community, segregate themselves among ethnic lines. Black Americans living in Harlem weren’t crazy about hordes of Caribbean immigrants who tried to integrate themselves into American society at the turn of the 20th century. In a way it makes sense, look at every wave of immigration that this country has ever had. White protestants didn’t care much for the Irish because of their willingness to work for lower wages (and also the predominance of Catholicism among the group). Black Americans didn’t care much for Caribbean immigrants for similar reasons, minus the Catholicism of course. People like to look out for their own and tend to react with hostility when confronted with people, who they construe as different, try and integrate themselves into a community in which they are not a majority.

Not only does this constitute the highest form of hypocrisy, this hostility did nothing to foster a sense of community among people who, by all means, shared a very similar standard of living. The truth of the matter is, white people didn’t see a difference between the myriad shades of brown that were now populating Harlem. Pretty much everyone who wasn’t a white anglosaxon protestant was looked down upon in one way or another. While it is true that those who were heard speaking a foreign language such as Spanish and French received concessions and much more leeway to maneuver about Americas rigid early 20th century social ladder, people who made the trip from the Caribbean to the United States often suffered greatly during their travels. For example, only white workers stationed at the Panama Canal during its construction were paid in gold, the rest be them Haitian, Jamaican, or Guyanese were all forced to live in the same packed tenement buildings and were only paid in Panamanian Silver coins. Living off subsistence wages the process of making enough money to simultaneously send remittances to their family back home and pay for boat fare to America was a challenge of the highest caliber.

Without a doubt the surge in Caribbean immigration caused massive social change within Manhattan. With the help of certain beneficiary groups those who came here from the Caribbean eventually managed to carve themselves out a niche in the city despite the adversity they faced from all sides. Coupled with all the Black Americans who found themselves pushed north because of rising cost of living downtown these two very distinct groups of people managed to coalesce into the multi-ethnic neighborhood of Harlem, in the process giving the neighborhood an incredibly distinct feel.

The Harlem community from 1900-1930 has been influenced by various intellectual figures, drastic changes in the world,  and the influx of a new ethnicity, Afro-Caribbeans. Harlem has transitioned from being a heavily white populated environment to a diverse black community.

The start of the transition in Harlem was influenced by overbuilding in the 1890s.  African American real estate agents for example, Philip Payton persuaded white landlords in Harlem to accept black tenants. Also, with the construction of Penn Station, apartments doubled its rent in central Manhattan. Places like San Juan Hill, pushed black tenants out due to the increase in rent. Thus, these tenants found a place to live in Harlem. Harlem also attracted various intellectual figures such as W.E.B. Du Bois. James Weldon Johnson, and Claude Mckay. Du Bois at this time viewed the Caribbean immigrants of possessing traits of the “representative negro.” Some of the these traits included hard work and independence. This raised tension between native born African Americans and Caribbean immigrants. An interesting fact was that due to the the vast immigration of foreigners to America, sometimes black American citizens could avoid the Jim Crow laws if they were mistaken for being foreign born.

Societies in the Caribbean was different from society in America. In the Caribbean, although the elite circle consisted of mostly educated whites, dark skinned people could still have an influence. The requirements was having an education or owning property.This is much different from America because even if someone had an education, their skin color would decide their fate. The Caribbean also had a heterogeneous society because of the import of Asian indentured laborers. These Asian-Caribbeans eventually moved to Harlem with their neighbors, Afro-Caribbeans.

During the years 1904 to 1914, the United States took over the Panama Canal project and this led to the immigration of the Caribbean people to Panama for work. The Panama Canal project had a major influence on the immigration of the Caribbean people to the U.S because caribbean immigrants used Panama money to bring their families to the U.S. What I found interesting was that in Panama even though the Panama Canal offered a lot of labor opportunities, people were actually living in worse conditions than before. The Jim Crow laws still applied, which segregated the blacks and whites. The darker skinned people were also paid less regardless of their skill level. For example, black employees were paid in Panamanian silver balboas while white employees were paid in gold balboas. Another aspect of the influence of Caribbeans in Panama was women. Women were persuaded to emigrate by the Isthmian Canal Commission (ICC). The ICC employed black women for house jobs such as being servants. I found it strange how the Caribbean women were preferred over Panamanians.

After the opening of the Panama Canal, more Caribbean laborers were influenced to Central American countries for work. However, due to World World I, working conditions deteriorated and emigration was focused on the U.S. That is how the Panama Canal project caused the Caribbean people to eventually move into Harlem. There were also programs such as the Victoria Emigration Society which helped women in Barbados by giving them money for emigrating.

“On to Harlem,” Philip and Maggie Payton’s purchase of the Victorian Gothic rowhouse transformed Harlem from being populated with Irish and Germans to becoming a black community. The vast majority of black migration has caused Harlem to become “a city within the City of New York.” Harlem was furthered expanded by the Caribbean benevolent societies which raised money to purchase three to four story brownstones. Other organizations such as the New York Colored Mission aided immigrants by helping them find work.

In conclusion, Harlem transformed into a black community because of the influence of certain individuals and the immigration of the Caribbean people to the U.S. I was surprised to learn about how other events in the world such as the building of the Panama Canal or World War I, can contribute to being a major factor in the development of communities. Overall, the Caribbean people played a major role in the transformation of Harlem because of their contribution in making Harlem a culturally diverse community.

The first three chapters of Blood Relations: Caribbean Immigrants and the Harlem Community, 1900-1930, written by Irma Watkins-Owens, were very interesting and helped me gain knowledge about the history behind the formation of the Harlem community. I am not afraid to admit that before attending this class, I did not know that there were many people of Caribbean descent living in Harlem. Because of skin color and other traits that I stereotypically attribute to African Americans, I thought most of the people in Harlem were African American. This book has opened up my mind and it has also made me realize that although immigrants in America come from diverse political, socioeconomic and religious backgrounds, what they all share in common is the American Dream. In her book, Watkins-Owens analyzes the emergence of Harlem’s black community during the first three decades of the twentieth century by looking at the relationship between West Indian immigrants and American-born southern immigrants. Many times this relationship was full of tensions. West Indian immigrants were put in a higher social class than African Americans because of their work ethnic and the fact that they could speak a different language. This angered African Americans because they believed that they should be placed in a higher position in society because of the amount of time that their race lived in the U.S. West Indian immigrants were treated better just because they were born in a different place. Watkins-Owens also goes back to the beginning and explains why people from the Caribbean left their homelands and migrated to the U.S. What interested me the most out of these three chapters in the book is the role women and institutions, such as the church, had in helping Caribbean immigrants assimilate into American society.

Chapter 1 provides an in-depth explanation of the intraracial ethnicity in Harlem. I found it very interesting to read that Harlem used to be a mostly white community. Since I am living in a time period where Harlem is predominantly black, I always ignorantly believed that it was inhabited by black people. However, due to overcrowding in the tenements in downtown Manhattan, the construction of subway stations and other housing issues, African Americans were pushed towards uptown Manhattan. The movement of African Americans to Harlem created a huge change in society. Initially white tenants and landlords were upset and often times resisted this “invasion” but because of ambitious real estate agents like Payton, they eventually succumbed. Like my group discussed in class on Tuesday, more and more African Americans moved to Harlem because they found people with their same ways of thinking, their same identity, their same socioeconomic struggles and their same religion. Black Caribbean immigrants also moved to Harlem because it became such a desirable community full of people from all stages in life, social classes and with different educations. However, all of this movement spurred many issues within the community, “How would white American society perceive foreign blacks? Would black foreigners become allies with black Americans in the great American race struggle? And how would native blacks and their leaders react to a new expanding ethnic and nonracial dimension to community life?” (4). These questions were very important and were issues that caused tensions to form between foreign blacks and native blacks. Like I mentioned before, many native blacks were upset at the fact that foreigners were treated better because they could speak a second language, they were born somewhere else and their work ethnic was deemed better by the white community. At one point, foreign blacks were seen as the “model minority.” This motivated some native blacks to try and imitate the foreigners, but also caused many tensions.

Chapter 1 also discusses how myriad kinship and community networks aided both Caribbean and Southern immigrants by directing them towards employment and housing. These networks are very important because they made the lives of these immigrants a little bit easier. I may be wrong when I say this, but I do not see this for immigrants today. Many come to this country illegally and have to spend a lot of time struggling till they get themselves together. The support that may exist today is not the same as the support that the immigrants in the past received from their fellow compatriots. Many southerners and later on Caribbean people formed groups and organizations that assisted those who recently arrived to the U.S. to adjust to the system and promoted advancement. Religion also played a huge role in the adjustment of immigrants both from the Caribbean and from the southern states. Many used the kerygma as a way of helping them get through their struggles. The idea that an omnipotent being exists and is always looking after his people provided many immigrants with the courage to confront the problems they had. Many immigrants also introduced entirely new denominations of churches that were based on Caribbean culture and way of thinking. The formation of these new sects made Caribbean people feel more at home. It allowed them to express their culture and their beliefs in a god.

Chapter 2 is very interesting because it discusses the reason why Caribbean immigration to the United States started. According to the second chapter, Caribbean migration can be categorized in several phases. Movements that occurred between 1835 and 1885 were between islands. Once the black Caribbean people were freed from slavery they had to look for work. The only available work during that time was in the plantations. So people in the Caribbean immigrated to islands where there was work. This migration within the islands created diversity in each island because it spread different cultural, social, and sometimes even political ideas throughout the different areas. Each island had its own set of complex social dynamics. The fact that many islands in the Caribbean used to be English, French and/or Spanish colonies also added on to the diversity and uniqueness of each one. Colonization has many effects on the colonized. In the Caribbean, class status and economic mobility were essential to achieving recognition in the environment. This yearning to be successful encouraged migration of people. Initially, Caribbean people immigrated to islands where people thrived economically. However, once all the opportunities were taken, people decided to immigrate to the U.S.

The Panama Canal Project was heavily discussed in chapter 2. It was sort of the first project that incentivized people from the Caribbean to begin to immigrate out of their homelands. During the early years of the twentieth century, many people left the Caribbean to Panama in search of work. The Panama Canal became the first opportunity to thrive economically. However, the Caribbean immigrants quickly discovered that working on this canal would not yield them much revenue. The workers got paid very little for doing large amounts of work. Another discouraging notion with regards to the project was that workers were segregated according to skin color. White people who worked on the canal got paid in gold and received free housing. Black immigrants were paid in silver and had to find their own housing. Working conditions were also not good and many had to risk their lives for little pay. However, it is interesting to note that in order to deal with all the pain and anguish caused by this disappointment, Caribbean immigrants decided to develop their own traditions and created important social institutions as new permanent communities were created. The Church was the most important institution for these immigrants. Here we see once more how important religion was to Caribbean immigrants. The creation of communities made up of Caribbean immigrants had effects on Panama. Before reading this book, I always wondered why some foods, music and traditions from Panama were similar to those of some islands in the Caribbean. Now I understand why.

The exploitation of Caribbean immigrant women in Panama is also highly significant. I never knew that they suffered that much. In the book, Watkins-Owens says that many Caribbean women were lured to Panama by bogus agents offering them good jobs and then forced into prostitution. Had I not read this book, I would never have associated Panama Canal construction with prostitution. Something else that I found interesting was the important role that the United Fruit Company had during the time period. It virtually controlled the Caribbean labor market and had an impact on the lives of workers and their families all over the Caribbean. It offered low waged jobs to Caribbean people who did not have any other options but to accept and be exploited. Eventually, Caribbean people started to immigrate to the United States (specifically Harlem, NYC) in search of new jobs. The United States was seen as the dominant economic force of the Western Hemisphere, which led to the emigration of people from the West Indies. On a side note, this idea is still present in the minds of people from all over the world today. I have family members who want to immigrate to New York City and make their lives better. Even though for those of us who live here, New York City has many issues and problems that are yet to be solved, for those who live in other countries, this city is seen as a place where their dreams and wishes can come true.

The creation of family networks is another interesting part of Caribbean immigration and played a huge role in the formation of such a strong and united immigrant community within Harlem. Many times, people would immigrate to the United States, spend months or sometimes years working and saving up money to bring other family members to New York to live with them. Pregnant women would bring their little sisters to live with them so that the little sisters could help take care of them. The fact that immigrants kept in touch with family members back home also surprised me. Today, it is easier to keep in touch with loved ones in other countries because of the advancements in technology. It is amazing how back then, Caribbean immigrants would send packaged food, money and letters on a weekly basis and receive food from back home and letters in return. This shows me that the familial ties were very strong. But what I find very upsetting is the fact that all these people wanted was to make their lives better and when they came to the United States they confronted so much racism from most whites and had to deal with hatred from African Americans. I agree with Maida Springer when she says, “We were all strangers. The black American, the black foreigner, and we did not like one another, and the white foreigner liked us less and the white American hated all of us” (29). Although Caribbean people were thought of as higher than black Americans, they were still on the lower end of the social class hierarchal structure. This quote generalizes the tensions that existed in New York during that time period. However, it is interesting to see how over time, African Americans and descendants of Caribbean immigrants were able to ease some of these tensions and get along.

Chapter 3 provides a lot of information with regards to the evolution of Harlem from a white-based community to a predominantly black community. It is interesting how at one point, the word Harlem had become synonymous with black culture and black lifestyle in Manhattan. Many factors contributed to this change. As mentioned earlier, being “kicked out” of downtown Manhattan and other areas due to renovation and construction of new places was a huge factor for this movement. This reason reminds me of what is happening today with Dominicans who live in Harlem. Because of gentrification and rent increases, many are being kicked out of where they live and consequently are moving to the southern part of the Bronx. But anyways, it is important to note that the communities that surrounded Harlem were made up of Russian and Italian immigrants. Philip A. Payton and his wife, Maggie Payton played an important role in this movement of native blacks and black immigrants to Harlem. Since he was a real estate broker, he worked with many white landlords to allow black people to move into their properties. He, without doubt, assisted many people who otherwise would not have had a home. Little by little white people moved out of the area and so black people became owners of many houses and apartments and leased them to other black people, which expanded Harlem’s black population even more. The Church played a huge role in this area as well, by collecting money to buy houses for black immigrants. Some black people even created organizations such as the White Rose Mission, which were aimed at providing immigrants with temporary housing and employment. What’s even more interesting is how many immigrants worked together to make their lives better. They would pool their money to buy houses and increase the amount of houses available to black immigrants.

The first three chapters of this book have caught my attention. There are so many topics that I can relate to at a personal level, particularly the important role that religion plays in the life of an immigrant. It is in the Catholic Church that my parents, sister and I have found our refuge and have received assistance. Like many Caribbean immigrants, it is here that we have been able to maintain our culture and tradition alive. When we feel down and in need of guidance, we go to the church where we feel replenished and filled.

Something I feel this book has not explicitly mentioned is the effect that Caribbean immigration to the United States has had on the Caribbean. What happened to the islands’ economies?

From this reading, it is clear that in early twentieth century Harlem, the relationship between immigrant blacks and ones born in the United States was one of much tension. This type of relationship seems strange at first glance, as both groups shared many of the same struggles, and were undeniably at a disadvantage when compared with their white counterparts. Their dislike and distrust of each other seemingly came from the way each group was treated by the white majority, but these groups had prejudices against each other that enhanced these negative feelings.

Chapter 1 of Blood Relations explains the monumental transformation that Harlem went through in the turn of the twentieth century. Previously, this land had been settled almost exclusively by whites, and a virulent reluctance to let blacks into the area existed. However, after pressure from elite blacks, especially real-estate agent Phillip Payton, blacks were able to populate the area, and movements were even created to encourage this. By 1915, the area was even populated by immigrants from across the Caribbean. These immigrants were seen by the black community as people to emulate and look up to, mostly because of their “thrift, hard work, and independence” (3). By 1925, though, there were growing sentiments amongst Caribbean immigrants that they were being forced into black Harlem, unable to form neighborhoods of their own. It was around this time that there became a noticeable difference in the reception of native black Americans and those who were foreign. In the reading, multiple instances of such unequal treatment were provided.

Chapter 2 discusses the reasons why immigrants decided to make the move to the United States. After Caribbean communities had been established, it made for strong ties between immigrants, and their family and friends who were still at home. A result of this is that it became easier for more Caribbeans still at home to make the move, as they were able to move in with family and friends who lived in Harlem or other Caribbean neighborhoods. While they had high hopes for coming to the United States, that their quality of life would improve, they were met with scarce employment opportunities once they arrived, and the journey was difficult and expensive. Caribbeans avoided most of the south because of the alleged hostility to people of color. The difficulty of immigration was also extended by the policy of disease checks at places like Ellis Island, and the requirement that immigrants from the Caribbean must have financially stable family members who currently lived in the United States in order to successfully move in.

Finally, in Chapter 3, Blood Relations covers, more specifically, the movement of both native and foreign born blacks into Harlem. This phenomenon was known as the “On to Harlem” movement, which was started by preachers and assisted by large real estate acquisitions by various churches and Caribbean benevolent fundsc. This allowed many elite members of the black community to move uptown into what was considered by many to be some of the nicest real-estate in Manhattan. Eventually, whites in Harlem were ultimately pushed out of the area as a result of their refusal to coexist with blacks. When these whites moved out, more blacks were able to move in at cheaper prices and eventually the entire area became an almost entirely black neighborhood.

What I found most surprising from this reading was how differently foreign blacks were treated from native ones. It was mentioned in maybe a sentence or two in the reading, but it seemed that native African Americans had been placed in their own social caste, and had been, against their will, placed into second-class citizenry. When new blacks who hadn’t been so disadvantaged entered the United States, they spoke many languages and had more education. This enabled them to distance themselves from the African Americans, even though they shared the same skin color. I can only wonder why such treatment was deserved.

Adrian Horczak

Professor J. Lutton

People of New York

February 12, 2015

Within the first three chapters, Blood Relations describes the history of how Harlem became a place settled by many African Americans and African immigrants. It provides some interesting facts about the differences between the ways black Americans were treated compared with black foreigners. In addition, the book explains how the construction of the Panama Canal affected Negros in American, especially those in New York. Ties between family members in the United States of America and abroad are emphasized throughout the book because they were the main factors that lead to black immigration.

Apparently, Harlem was never imagined as a thriving black neighborhood before the twentieth century since white inhabitants resisted black residence in the area. However, a native-born black real estate broker, Philip A. Payton, began the transformation of Harlem into a community of colored peoples after a white landlord requested he fill up his house with black tenants. Then Payton insisted other landlords do the same. Since many African Americans that were living in downtown Manhattan were forced to move out due to new construction projects and overcrowding, they decided to move to the spacious, previously all white sections of Harlem. Therefore, within a decade (1905-1915), Harlem had become a community with a plethora of colored people from a variety of backgrounds including Jamaican, Antigua, the Bahamas, the Virgin Islands, Haiti, Puerto Rico, Panama, and West Africa. Harlem attracted black elite from the entire country and many areas of the world.

The large quantity of black immigrants coming to the country changed the white American’s perception of some black people in New York. The laws requiring separating facilities for white colored people, know as Jim Crow regulations, were strictly enforced at this time, but their enforcement was often neglected when a black person was foreign born. Black Americans had to abide by the regulations, but black immigrants did not and could go to many all white facilities. Black Americans realized that if they learned a foreign language and spoke it with others, they would be better off and some did.

When construction on the Panama Canal was to begin, Americans were sent there to design, dig, and build the features of the canal. At this time, Panama was introduced to the segregation that existed in the United States of America, especially in the areas where work on the canal was being done. White workers had good jobs, wages and housing, while black laborers worked long hours for little pay and lived in poor conditions. In addition, all of these jobs attracted new settlers from the Caribbean. The abundance of men in Panama encouraged some to have their whole families come. However, those from New York usually had established a permanent home, so family visits were temporary. Thus, when work on the canal was complete, many American workers went back.

Harlem in the 1930s changed from the way it was in 1910s. It had grown much more since the first black tenants that came had anchored their lives their and invited their families and other black people to come and live there. Among them, being a black foreigner made them inferior as opposed to the way they used to be viewed. Now they were ridiculed. Still black Americans even if they were educated could not get better jobs and move up the social ladder alongside white Americans because of the color of their skin.

Reading these three chapters has made me realize that there really is no more racism today because, as I stated in the previous statement, people were barred from certain institutions based on their race. However, today that kind of practice is illegal. Thus, opportunities are open to all races, and there is no racism. I do not understand why we have discussed the presence of racism in class if this is so. If indeed there still was racism there would be no black or Hispanic students in specialized high schools, but as we said in class, there are a few who take advantage of the opportunities offered to them.

Moreover, I am perplexed about how the view of black immigrants in America changed so quickly. In the beginning of the nineteenth century, they went from being treated better than black Americans to being jeered at by black Americans.

Blood Relations explores immigration to the United States in the early 1900s. It discusses the effects of families of the migrants, the new communities that were formed, gender roles in society and the creation of Harlem as we know it to be today.

Many of the immigrant families that came to the US came for better job opportunities. Chapter 2 gives the example of common laborers, for whom “completion of the canal in 1914 meant eviction from Isthmus. Others left voluntarily to seek work opportunities elsewhere,” (17). This just shows the cycle of migration for bigger and better, which is a mentality that continues on today.

The first three chapters also discussed racial issues as well as gender roles in the society. In Panama, black employees were paid in Panamanian silver balboas and whites were paid in gold. Job opportunities and luxuries were often in favor of whites as well. Once in America, and in Panama as well, women were not given the same jobs as were offered to men. Men worked in docks, as porters, and did physical labor while women usually did domestic work for upper class white families or worked in sweatshops.

My favorite part of the reading was chapter 3. I was interested in learning the history of how Harlem came to be a predominantly black neighborhood. On page 41, the author states “By 1920, the two-decade long resistance of white Central Harlem homeowners associations crumbled under the weight of the black migration.” This was a powerful statement, in my opinion, because it showed such a drastic change in the neighborhood and captured the power and strength of the “On to Harlem” movement uptown. I also found the idea of the successful real estate firms to be interesting because back in the early 1900s they were able to make a great profit off the large movement to Harlem; where as for a long period in the later 1900s it slowed down and is only now starting up again.

Another part of chapter 3 that I really liked was the section that discussed young women in a powerful light. The White Rose Mission and Industrial Working Girls Home as well as the Danish West Indian Ladies Aid Society seem like valuable organization in a society where there was not a lot of help for young women trying to immigrate to North America. In a time where so many girls were lured into prostitution traps, people like Victoria Earle Matthews were able to prevent such disasters from happening.

This week we began reading Blood Relations: Caribbean Immigrants and the Harlem Community, 1900-1930 by Irma Watkins-Owens, starting with the first three chapters. The book outlines the history of Southern and Caribbean black immigration to New York City and specifically Harlem. The relations between the people studied are seen through the lens of gender, class and race. These contexts are very important for understanding the demographic and cultural identity of Harlem.

Harlem was initially a white neighborhood, called a “residential heaven” at the time, which experienced extreme changes in its demographic in the early twentieth century. There was a lot of resistance to the influx of black immigrants but with the help of certain organizations and individuals the new comers were able to create a community in Harlem. Real Estate agents, like Philip A. Payton, were key in this. They convinced white landowners to rent to black people and eventually bought up buildings in the area. Churches and African American ministers were very important as well, as they also bought buildings in the area and united the native African Americans and Caribbean blacks in their congregations.

An important historical event that was a very important step in the lead up to migrations to New York City was the construction of the Panama Canal. This is discussed in-depth in the second chapter, “Panama Silver Meets Jim Crow.” The Panama Canal required mass amounts of labor, and drew most of workforce from the black populations of Caribbean colonial states. The mass movement of men for labor and women for domestic work changed the migration situation of the region drastically. It set up the beginnings of transnational networks that later became essential to the formation of the black community in Harlem. Workers would use their “Panama money“ to send family members to New York City. Once the construction of the Panama Canal finished, the laborers needed more work and thus found jobs in Caribbean ports and in New York City. This set into motion the heaviest period of black immigration, between 1911 and 1924.

Something that I found interesting about the movement of Caribbean blacks to the United States was their treatment. Southern blacks and any black person taken for a southern black was, for the most part, treated badly and with no respect. But many anecdotes within the text show how foreign blacks who spoke languages other than English or spoke with an “exotic accent” were treated better. In one striking recounting, a man was arrested and appeared before a judge. When the Judge heard his Jamaican accent, his attitude changed and assumed his innocence. This shows how class and history are really important to race relations. It also shows how relative and arbitrary racism and prejudice can be. It was strange to see this now because the views have shifted, typical attitudes in the United States now tend to lump all black people together into one group. From my observations, I believe that now foreign blacks would be treated worse than native ones. It is interesting how perspectives can change drastically and over a short period of time.

Once the black population was settled in Harlem it became an essential and indispensible hub. The transnational networks were very intricate, connecting laborers in the United States with families back in the home countries. The support went both ways in the networks with lots of correspondence back and forth. This facilitated further movement to Harlem. Within families and Harlem communities, people often gathered resources together to buy houses or to bring people over from the Caribbean. The area then became attractive for middle class and elite African Americans. The will to achieve successful mobility was very high. Many blacks in the community studied to become doctors and other such professions to improve their social standing. There is an anecdote that is a very classic example. An immigrant woman, named Edith Mitchell, volunteered at a hospital during the Second World War. After working there for a while, she became a nurse. She worked hard to send her son to medical school and he ended up becoming a physician. This kind of social mobility is what the immigrants all wanted when they came to the New York City. That is what they were denied in the conditions of their home countries.

The vast international consequences of the neighborhood like Harlem and a city like New York are very interesting. I would like to know more about the global political implications. I am interested in finding out more about the reactions and concerns of the European colonial powers and elites of the Caribbean colonial states as they witnessed their populations leaving in massive numbers. Another thing that I am highly interesting in is Cuban and Puerto Rican cigar makers in New York who where active in anti-imperialist, pro-independence and socialist circles. These issues of imperialism and independence are very important to me and continue to be discussed worldwide.

It is quite extraordinary how much history this reading contained so far. Having taken multiple history classes, we have learned about immigration numerous times, such as the various waves of distinguished immigrants including the Germans, Jews, Slavs, Irish, etc. However, this reading clearly elaborated immigration from the Caribbean, while being meticulous with every aspect involved in the immigration process. This reading so far has been very interesting, due to the fact that this immigration wave was not really emphasized in our previous classes of history.

The beginning three chapters followed a very comprehensive and logical method to depict the immigration of the Caribbean islanders, following a chronological method. However, the reading set the premise by the introductory first chapter, which gave a general overview of the background before the immigration that occurred during the early 20th century. In the beginning, there is a brief history of Harlem before the emigration of black individuals, which allows the reader to compare the two scenarios, especially during the crucial shift that occurred when Harlem gradually changed from white residents to black residents. Before this time period, the northern part of Manhattan including Harlem was mostly comprised of white individuals, and the location during that time was very homogeneous. A pivotal and very intriguing occurrence during this time was that, due to over-building, there was an abundant of housing space available, which with the help of real state figure Phillip Payton, was being gradually filled with black individuals. Payton revolutionized history by persuading the white homeowners to allow black tenants to rent in Harlem. This gradual progression eventually led to the formation of Harlem as we know it today, while the white moved to various other locations of Manhattan. During this time, there was a large shift of both native blacks and Caribbean into Harlem, from poor areas of lower Manhattan, which was mostly comprised of native blacks.

Another very interesting point that the reading mentioned was the hostility between the native blacks and Caribbean immigrants. Previously when studying history many of us have learned about the struggle between African Americans and white individuals along with the Irish. However, the fact that these two groups of people, who shared an important characteristic of being the same skin color, (during that time it was considered important) loathed each other was quite ironic in my opinion. Also, during these times of segregation and racism, the immigrants were actually treated more favorably compared to the native blacks. This unequal demeanor might have set the the two sides in conflicting opposition along with other reasons such as different cultures, tradition, beliefs, and work ethics. The fact that influential writers suggested to African Americans during this time to learn different languages such as Spanish or French, imposing as an immigrant in order to be treated more fairly, astonished me quite a bit. However, both the individuals gradually become accustomed to each other, due to the fact that they both lived in the same community of Harlem. Despite their differences, many shared the same home, and eventually they assimilated into unique relationships, with cultural diffusion playing a pivotal role.

Another interesting occurrence that was revealed in the reading was the building of the Panama Canal, but in a much more meticulous manner. In history class, we have all learned about the significance of the Panama Canal, but we never truly discussed the actual events that occurred during the building of this revolutionizing pathway. An interesting aspect that was revealed in the reading was that, once the U.S. took over the building of the Panama Canal, they actually integrated the Jim Crow laws. During this time, numerous Caribbean individuals worked extreme amounts to build the canal, in hopes of raising enough money to pay for their family to move to the “Land of Opportunity.” The Caribbean islanders, following the end of colonization, moved to various islands in hopes of increasing their social status the only way they knew how: by acquiring land. The major concern for these individuals was financial security, but during these times it was extremely tough, especially in their home country. These individuals moved from island to island, but to no avail. Many sought to work under the U.S. to build the Panama Canal, in hopes of reaching America, but this method was not efficient neither, considering the segregation and meager pay the black individuals were given. Along with this time period of injustice, other atrocious activities that disgusted me was tricking innocent Caribbean women into thinking they were going to U.S. to work, while they were actually made into prostitutes. Other more fortunate women were benevolent in their actions which consisted of inducing immigration of its family back home to the U.S. by working hard domestic jobs, and while doing altruistic actions such as inviting recent immigrants into their homes, giving them a temporary safe haven, during their time of perpetual struggles.

Being just in the introductory part of this elaborate reading, many hardships of the long Caribbean odyssey have been depicted in great detail. This reading serves as a window into the past history, that has been, on the most part, overlooked in our history classes, thus allowing it to be even more intriguing. The Caribbean odyssey consists of numerous events that shaped the country, and New York more specifically, as we know it today.

Mohamed Mohamed

The first three chapters of Blood Relations provided enough information for me to get a clear understanding of the early years of Caribbean migration to the States. Some was new to me, but other information had me in deep thought. How diligently and ruthlessly migrants were willing to work in order to step foot on U.S soil just made me stop and reflect. Also, the fact that blacks from the Caribbean who spoke a foreign language were treated better than the native blacks left me confused and curios.

The effort of many Caribbean folks to migrate to the United States was, simply put, incredible. I want to begin with the discussions in chapter 2 and the Panama Canal project. A trip to the United States was expensive. Therefore many were seeking jobs in islands of the Caribbean. The Panama Canal project offered thousands of jobs, however it came with a disclaimer. The construction of the canal was a difficult and a dangerous project. It required hardcore labor and was very unsafe due to accidents and diseases. Sources claim that over 26,000 men were killed, 5,000 of whom were workers during the United States takeover of the project (Source 1 and 2). In spite of this, blacks faced mistreatment and injustice (after U.S took over the Panama Canal project and instituted the Jim Crow Laws). Blacks were paid in silver not gold and were not provided with free housing like the whites. Nevertheless, many Caribbean folks still took the job in the construction of the Panama Canal in hopes of migrating to the United States.

First, I was overfilled with gratefulness after reading this. Living in the United States I have access to a plethora of opportunities. Sadly many of these opportunities I have taken for granted. These are the opportunities that many migrants would have seen as chances to achieve greatness. Moreover, I am living in the United States and enjoying a great education thanks to the struggle of my father and grandfather. My dad’s struggle however can never compare to that of the Caribbean migrants of late 1800s early 1900s. Again this made me even more grateful for having an easy time immigrating. Furthermore, after reflecting I began to feel a great deal of empathy for these people. They worked very diligently day in and day out regardless of the little hope of making it to the States. Even if this hope becomes a reality, then what? They will still find themselves searching for a job and receiving the low level jobs in the slums of New York (If they were unskilled or not educated).

Finally, the first chapter discusses how the treatment of the native blacks was very different from that of the foreign speaking blacks. A Spanish speaking black man was treated better by society than a native black man. Today, the opposite effect seems to have happened. Nowadays, the English speaking black man is at an advantage over the Spanish-speaking fellow. He is more likely to receive the job offer and more likely to receive greater opportunities due to his familiarity with society.

Chapter 1 of Blood Relations talks about the relations between racial groups in Harlem. The dynamics of these relations were important to Harlem’s development as a center for immigrants from the Caribbean. These people, due to their complexion, were inevitably settled into black Harlem. However, they had a particularly great social and cultural impact. The differentiating factor between African-Caribbean people and native African-Americans may have been the patterns in their cultural institutions, to which women contributed greatly. There seemed to be an emphasis on kinship networks and lodging because they led to (what the book called) “employers and hiring.” Harlem politics evolved as the old elite lost its power due to the influx of immigrants, and one notable and new tradition in these politics was the street corner forums.

Chapter 2 talks about the migration of African-Caribbeans within the Caribbean as well as to America. We are introduced to 3 phases in this migration: 1) interterritorial (1835-1885); 2) to foreign lands at the edge of the Caribbean Sea (1880s-1920s); and 3) to America (World War I and later). After emancipation, freed slaves started traveling to find work and good wages in order to acquire property. There was little work in the Caribbean; however, projects farther away (like the Panama Canal) encouraged migration. There were tastes of Jim Crow laws in the Panama Canal Zone along with the establishment of important cultural traditions. For example, blacks were paid in lower wages than whites and were paid in silver (instead of gold). As time progressed, America began to hold the promise of an improvement of life (the “Land of Promise”). However, there were numerous restrictions that migrants had to deal with when coming to America. They included health tests and consultation with the Consul. The receiving individual must have demonstrated financial responsibility, and there was harsh treatment waiting for anyone caught coming illegally. Women played a crucial role in helping settle newcomers. The White Rose Mission, Travelers’ Aid Society, and the Welcome Stranger Committee all helped newcomers find temporary lodging and employment. An immigration bill in 1924 enforced quotas and restricted immigrants of the “black or African race.” Many initially opposed; however, this opposition eventually waned. Thus, African-Caribbean people were being identified as part of a racial community rather than an ethnic one.

Chapter 3 talks about the housing and occupational characteristics of African-Americans (both native and foreign-born) in Harlem. Many immigrants had an education and even a skill; however, they possessed little money. As a result, they could not afford their own housing and had to lodge. Harlem offered a good environment for community building as more and more blacks began to settle there. Thus, the phrase “On to Harlem” became popular. Changes began to come about. The Payton block was basically an example of this transformation: from an Irish and German community to a heterogeneous black American and Caribbean-immigrant community. It was originally thought that Harlem itself could not become a black sector. However, this was proven wrong when there was a movement of black immigrants uptown and Russian Jews and Italians downtown. In terms of occupation in and around the Payton block, most were in low white-collar occupations. Some others made it in real estate, like Nail and Parker. Churches and organizations owned most of the property available. For smaller groups, collective economics was required with the pooling of resources. An increase in tenement development as well as higher rates led to an increase in household size. One inevitable side effect was the concept of lodging, which was a way of life due to high rents and an influx of newcomers. There was often a similarity in occupations and origin among lodgers and hosts.

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What is important is that the main motivation of migration involved the possibility of finding a better job and improving one’s (or one’s children’s) present condition. This is true even today. However, it seemed that the true struggle back then was to maintain one’s status despite economic condition. In doing so, few achieved social mobility. However, these Caribbean immigrants could at least hope that their children could move up the social ladder. It was certainly a reachable goal; however, that goal involved an arduous path.

One thing I noticed throughout these chapters was the importance of immigrant family networks. It seemed that there was a mention of this on almost every other page. We could see the large amounts of communication between immigrants and their families. Relatives had numerous expectations of their loved ones abroad, and relations could get strained because of this. There was also the mention of family obligations (for example, older people being expected to help raise younger children). This all highlights how important the notion of family was to these immigrants. Families could have provided a support system for these immigrants. However, they could have also been a source of stress. I can understand how the expectation of making enough money and succeeding can put a burden on those already here. However, these family ties were beneficial for those relatives who were planning to come to America as it could have made the immigration process somewhat easier. Thus, family ties contributed to a “snowball effect” in immigration.

In chapter one, a point was made that if a black person was foreign-born, he/she was treated generally better than a native-born black person. One could tell from differences in language or accent. This actually surprised me. I believed that prejudice was based solely on skin color (despite country of origin). However, this statement seemed to challenge that assertion. Indeed, the book even mentions it as the “strange ways of U.S. prejudice.” I am curious as to why this was the case. Why were foreign-born blacks treated better than native-born blacks? In addition, the opposite seems to have become the case later on. I am also curious as to what caused this abrupt shift.

I particularly enjoyed the stories that the author put into the chapters, especially those about Aletha Dowridge and Charles Petioni. It seemed to add a human component to the writing. Instead of the book being a recitation of facts, it became more personal and relatable to the reader.

Chapter 1 of Blood Relations discusses the initial push of black natives into Harlem. This began when the rent prices of San Juan Hill- where most blacks in New York City resided- increased rapidly. Furthermore, race riots in the area along with the construction of Penn Station called for a movement out of the section and into somewhere new. Harlem seemed to be the choice black natives took, especially since real estate agents such as Philip Payton influenced white land owners to rent apartments to black tenants. Thus, Harlem began growing as a center of black community. With a growing number of black residents, Harlem began to attract elite members of the black populace, for example, W.E.B. Du Bois who sought to report of the Harlem movement in his newspaper. Other than Native blacks moving into Harlem, there was also a push by caribbean immigrants into upper Manhattan. This emigration was almost completely unrestricted, until 1924 when the United States initiated an immigration quota. Anyhow, by then, of the 328,000 African Americans in the U.S., 224,000 resided in Manhattan, and especially in Harlem. Surprisingly, the caribbean immigrants that moved to the U.S. were favored over native blacks. From accounts, it seemed that white Americans gave selective treatment to foreign blacks, especially those who they heard speak Spanish or French. Odd indeed. No matter, Caribbean Islanders and black natives worked together to form communities. Within those communities, there seemed to be an abundance of women, which wasn’t negative as women were vital in settlement and creating immigration chains. Many immigrants in Harlem assimilated to settled communions and institutions, others however formed their own churches. Politics, however, was not an interest of these incoming immigrants as it was a rarity to see a caribbean islander participating in an election, even local ones.

Chapter 2 of Blood Relations discussed the paths Caribbean Islanders took before coming to the United States. Specifically, there was an inter-immigration between the islands in pursuit of employment. Crop plantations sought to employ the majority of the population on their islands, and as well the populations on other islands. Furthermore, Caribbean citizens themselves were unable to get their own land as the colonial system ensured that freed slaves would become laborers and not land owners. Thus, hard labor was the only choice these islanders had for employment. And when one Caribbean Island had no opportunities, workers turned to other islands. Furthermore, between 1838-1917, some 500,000 Asians were imported to work. This created a tight competition for employment. However, some projects and businesses relieved the tension, specifically the Panama Canal Project and the Sugar estates in Cuba and the Dominican Republic. These work opportunities were also vital in the immigration the islanders took to the U.S.. After the U.S. took over the Panama Canal Project, Jim Crow was further instituted. There was segregation, discrimination, and cruelty in Panama as blacks were not offered housing and were paid in silver instead of gold. Even the lowliest white workers received free housing. Other than working on the canal, Caribbean Islanders, specifically Women, were recruited to Panama for household work. This helped establish Caribbean communities and families in Panama. Some islanders even set up businesses. Some women were unfortunately tricked into coming to Panama and then taken into prostitution.  In the canal zone, there was little social mobility. Only Caribbean Islanders people with skills and education had any chance of becoming something other than hard laborers.

After the canal was built, Cuba was the next destination. The United Fruit Company was vital in the emigration of people from island to island as they controlled the plantations and opportunities. In Cuba, Caribbean communities were formed around ports that had a constant movement of ships that brought mail, goods, and people. Islanders sought to maintain touch with their homeland and families. Coming to America from Cuba and other islands was extremely difficult. Not only that, but families had to be separated as the trip was too expensive to afford. Some islands governments, for example the Barbados, set up emigration services to America. This worked by sending mostly women to the United States to create immigration chains. Without such services, getting into America was problematic as there were strict guidelines and rules that were purposefully difficult that immigrants had to meet. Furthermore, transportation on liners was terrible as blacks were segregated and treated miserably. The senate did not help with the struggle of these Caribbean Islanders as a an exclusion act was passed to specifically exclude Black foreigners.

Chapter 3 of Blood Relations discusses the life Caribbean Islanders followed when they finally reached Harlem. Black immigrants that came to Harlem lived in close proximity to black natives. Thus, Harlem offered a greater chance of community than any other place for the incoming immigrants. Churches and black elite sought to expand this black community in Harlem by buying apartment buildings and homes for blacks to rent. This however was only in a compact section of Harlem. This changed in 1920 when whites gave way and began moving out of Harlem allowing the purchase of homes at discounted prices. Thus more of Harlem became further occupied by native blacks and incoming immigrants. Many parts of Harlem even became exclusive to the black elite. For example, “Sugar Hill” on 155 street between St. Nichols and Convent avenue was home to self made black millionaires.  Philip Payton, mentioned earlier, continued his pursuit of property management and allowed blacks to continue moving further uptown through his successful real estate ventures. Other black businessmen included Watt Terry, Montsenant Roach, and Soloman Riley who made their millions off stocks. Of course, not everyone could afford the homes Harlem. Thus, “no-interest” loans were implemented within the Harlem community to allow the easier purchase of previously unaffordable homes. There were also fund raising activities on the Caribbean Islands for the purchase of Harlem buildings. Interestingly, female household work was the largest occupation in Harlem. This was due the difficulty in which blacks could attain other jobs, specifically those that required high skill sets. Immigrants of course experienced a greater difficulty to find steady jobs than the black natives, thus institutions like the New York Colored Mission were created to ease the transition immigrants made into American life by offering jobs and lodging. However, blacks still sought social mobility in the city, and that was the main motivation behind their immigration. An example of such motivation was Charles Petioni who struggled with his wife for several years until he was able to earn a medical degree.

The first three chapters Blood Relations offered deep insight about the movement of Caribbean Islanders to Harlem as well as the life black natives led in New York. I was firstly surprised by the selective treatment black foreigners gained over black natives. I was also surprised about the movement Caribbean Islanders experienced undertook from island to island in search of employment. However what wasn’t surprising is the struggle blacks faced in all their actions. I have already learned about the struggles of blacks in the U.S., and now am I aware that the struggle wasn’t exclusive to the U.S.. However, it is motivational to hear the first person accounts Blood Relations offers of the Caribbean immigrants and the stories of the self made millionaires.