Author: Lauren Schneider

This article taught me a lot about the air pollution in New York City. I like that it highlights all the positive change over the past few years. When I think of air pollution, especially in New York City, I always think of it as a lost cause because it seems like too big of a problem to deal with and it seems unrealistic to convince society to make changes. However, reading about the success of PlaNYC, I realized that we could continue to make progress. It also showed me how important environmental research and surveys are because you must know the source of the problem in order to fix it. There were many things I did not know about air pollution before this reading. I knew about carbon dioxide and ozone and the impact of air pollution on our respiratory systems, but I did not know about fine particles, sulfur dioxide, and nickel, which seem to be very harmful. One fact that I also found to be interesting was that in 2005 when 10,000 buildings were burning Nos. 4 and 6, they were emitting more PM_2.5 than all the vehicles on the roads of the entire city (2).

The data in this article truly shows the extent of the improvement in recent years. A big change was in the heating oils used. The government passed restriction on the types of oils being used, and combined with the fact that the price of natural gas declined, the result was a 69% decrease in SO₂ concentration over the past five years (5). It was also very interesting and encouraging to see that the SO₂ concentration from heating oils consistently decreased from year to year, even when the average temperature of the winter got colder and the need for heating was stronger. The city has also lessened the number of gas-burning vehicles on the roads by increasing public transportation and enhancing walking and biking. It is nice that New York City sets such high standards to have the cleanest air quality out of all the large cities in the U.S. It is very impressive, and a testament of the successful citywide efforts, that our ranking of the nine largest cities has jumped from seventh to fourth (8).

It is great to look at all the success of the recent years, and I think the city deserves a ton of credit for it, but there still needs to be a lot more improvement than what we have, especially because the population in the city will continue to grow. It says that the decrease in PM_2.5 had prevented 780 deaths, 1,600 emergency department visits for asthma, and 460 hospitalizations for cardiac and respiratory problems per year. Although that is significant, that is not enough. The fact that there are still thousands of people getting sick or dying from air pollution means that we need to make an even bigger effort. PlaNYC has not been able to significantly lower ozone levels, which are also very important for our health (10). We have seen that the government can make a difference when they get involved and enforce the environmental laws, so maybe we can blame the government and say that they must do even more. However, although I have been showed that it is possible to improve our air quality, until society has a major shift in its values, the air quality will not even come close to what we want it to be.

I actually thought this was one of the most interesting readings we’ve done so far, especially since storms and other weather problems have been so relevant and destructive in recent years. When we talk about the different aspects of an ecosystem, such as plants and animals, it is clear that humans are on top of all other organisms. However, weather, on the other hand is always present and more powerful than humans. Our actions have extremely altered weather causing global warming, which leads to other disasters. When humans ignore the importance of weather, it only comes back to hurt us.

Most people are aware that there is global warming but are ignorant about what it is and its magnitude. The world is getting warmer and humans are causing this warming to happen at an unnaturally rapid pace. Temperatures and water levels are increasing at much higher rates than before than they were before human life. Changes in temperature used to be measured over millennia, now they are measured over centuries. McCully says, “We have speeded up nature’s clock” (149). The temperature in New York rose one degree over the last century. Many people may not notice this change or find it significant, but this causes higher water levels and rainfall which leads to major problems during big storms. A big reason for this global warming is because of the burning of fossil fuels since the industrial revolution, which release gasses that cause the greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide levels have increased because of this, and at the same time, there are less plants to absorb the carbon dioxide. See levels rise when ice caps melt as a result.

Problems occur when we try to go against nature in attempts to protect ourselves. Cities have been built on wetlands or by the coasts. Wetlands were never meant to be cities, and therefore all the homes there are in danger. For example, New Orleans is was built on very low land, and that’s why Hurricane Katrina was so destructive, yet people continue to live there. When dams and groins are built to block the water it goes against nature and causes more problems. Studies show that adding sands to beaches and building groins only cause more erosion in the future.

I have a personal example of the destructiveness of weather. I live on the South Shore of Long Island, which McCully talks about. She mentions it is protected by dunes (159). My town is very low down and was built on wetland, so there was a lot of destruction from Hurricane Sandy. The dunes were obviously not the best solution, because when I looked out the window during the storm, my whole street was completely flooded. The water flooded my entire basement. Since then there has been a lot of talk about storm preparation, but maybe the only solution is to just stop building near the waters.

From this article, I learned a ton about the positive effects of green roofs. I always thought green roofs were beautiful, but I never before appreciated the true values and services they provide to our ecosystem. I really think that every building in New York City should have a green roof. In this class, I am constantly thinking about how we can convince society to make the necessary efforts to conserve our ecosystems. The combination of health benefits as a result from the reduction of air pollution, the conservation of energy (and the reduction of related costs), lowering the urban heat, and the longevity of roof membranes are just a few of the many benefits that come from these green roofs that would convince people to make the investments in them. If more people were aware of the benefits of green roofs, I truly believe that they would be more common. One of the major problems when it comes to urban ecology is the lack of vegetation in cities. It is a very complicated issue, because there is no space for plants and it would be very difficult to kick people out of their homes and knock down buildings to build a park. Green roofs are a great solution, because they allow people to live in an urban environment, while adding a significant amount of needed vegetation. In cities, since there is not a lot of vegetation surrounding the homes, why not put the vegetation on top of homes?

As mentioned, one of the biggest benefits of green roofs is the reduction in air pollution. Air pollution has become such a big problem in cities. I was startled by the fact that 9,500 premature deaths and increased health care costs resulted from air pollution (2102). One of the reasons people do not care about the environment and about reducing pollution is because people do not think pollution will affect us for a long time. However, this shows that it is already a bigger issue than most people think. Green roofs can help reduce the pollutants in the air and lower the associated health problems. They can also reduce carbon dioxide concentrations and improve air quality. The burning of fossil fuels releases a ton of carbon dioxide into the air, which results in higher temperatures and the greenhouse effect. Another thing I found interesting about green roofs was that since they last 45 years, compared to the 20 year lifespan of conventional roofs, we would actually be reducing the amount of roof membranes in the landfills (2104). I am also doing my term paper on noise pollution, so it was nice to read about how green roofs can help with noise reduction.

It is important to remember that, although green roofs help reduce a lot of problems, they cannot be the only solution. Many people may not think it is cost effective, and as great as they are, it is going to take a lot more than green roofs to make up for the amount of damage humans do to the environment. Until we have a major cultural shift and a change in attitude, it is almost impossible to get rid of pollution and solve the many other environmental problems that we have today.

In this chapter, McCully begins by describing what the waters surrounding New York were like prior to centuries of pollution. It is almost hard to imagine the abundance of species and estuaries that were here prior to European settlement. McCully describes how each of the variety of aquatic species had an important role in the functioning of the ecosystems, and that the wealth of aquatic life provided food for other animals (79). She explains the specific functions of specific species to show that every single species is crucial to the balance of a greater system, which is something we have spoken about in our class. It is crazy to think that the fish were so plentiful “that a man can walk across the river on their backs” (80).

As usual, McCully talks about the destructive practices of the European colonists. She goes on and on about how intrusive and disruptive the Europeans, specifically the Dutch, were to the waters of New York beginning in the 1600s. The attitude of the European settlers is expressed and shows, once, again, their lack of respect and appreciation for the ecosystems that was here before. They could only focus on the potential pasturage and cropland and they viewed the marshes and wetlands to be gross and useless. On page 82,  a Dutch man’s survey of the land is quoted saying, “Where the meadows are boggy and wet, such failings are easily remedied by cutting and breaking the bogs in winter and letting off the water in the spring” (82). It is interesting how he uses the word “failings” to describe these meadows. We have a very similar attitude problem in society today. People consider swamps to be gross and useless, because they are not aesthetically pleasing, and they do not realize the how necessary these ecosystems are.

She continues to talk about the amount of pollution and destruction that accumulated over the past four hundred years and its impact. Endless pollution, over crabbing, and dumping of sewage into the waters of New York, led this once flourishing marine ecosystem to become almost unrecognizable. It was extremely disturbing to read about how many tons of garbage were dumped right offshore of the city over the years. After all the garbage dumpings, chemical wastes, oil spills, and over-harvesting, I am shocked that there were still some species that were able to survive and live in the waters.

What I liked about this reading was that there was a very big focus on the legislation and efforts to fix the water pollution problems. It is worth noting, however, that a lot of this legislation came too late and only because it was beginning to affect the health of humans. (I do not think that the majority of people actually cared about the animals being killed; they just cared about their own health.) Many acts and regulatory groups made significant progress in reversing the problems, however, as mentioned in the chapter, “government regulation alone cannot remedy conditions unless public sentiment is ready to demand a strict enforcement of the necessary law” (87). While there have been great and effective efforts by the government, it all comes down to public opinion. For example, the New York State Conservation Law of 1911 prohibited the pollution of streams by oil refineries, but it was vastly ignored. There were also antienvironmental Republicans in Congress, and I found it very disturbing that people we elected are against conservation efforts. Another big issue was that major companies, such as GE, were releasing PCB’s from their plants into the water, and it was very difficult to control these industries.

On the other hand, there were a lot of people who did care about the pollution and did end up making a difference.   In the 1970’s, people, including fishermen, environmentalists, and concerned citizens formed a coalition known as the Riverkeeper. They began suing the major industries responsible for polluting the Hudson. People were outraged about what was going on, and this public sentiment is what was able to make a difference. It gives hope that there are people who do care about the environment. Robert F. Kennedy represents these people very well by saying that they felt they owned the Hudson and that it was being taken away from them. He makes a comparison to a truck unloading PCB’s on your backyard (89). Even though it is not a large percentage of the population who have these views and are involved environmental efforts, it is nice to see that there is a great community of people who are succeeding in making a difference and restoring some of the species that used to be here.

A large focus of this chapter is on weeds. I always disliked weeds, because I viewed them as ugly and annoying and associated with rundown or abandoned places. However, it was interesting to read about the true significance of weeds. In the past, in hunting-gathering societies, weeds were very important because they were a major source of food (100). Since then, weeds have been viewed as an annoying problem. They thrive on disturbed grounds and compete with native species. On page 105, McCully writes, “the most incorrigible problem facing restoration ecologists is aggressive, invasive alien weeds.” They are hard to get rid of and they because they reproduce rapidly and last a long time (99). It becomes very frustrating when it comes to gardening and farming, because when you uprooting the weeds to get rid of them, the land becomes more disturbed, which enables more to grow (105). I have learned in this class that all species are important and that most can contribute positively to the ecosystem, and therefore we should not take any species for granted. However, when it comes to weeds, I think it would be best if we can find a way to reduce its population. In this situation, I believe that the negatives outweigh the positives, since weeds compete with other species, they create many inconveniences for humans, and there is definitely no shortage of them.

Another important aspect of this chapter is the negative impact of alien and invasive species, like I mentioned with the weeds. I found it very interesting that invasive species contribute to the decline of 46% of endangered species (106). The Europeans brought with them, both intentionally and unintentionally, new species to America, many of which compete and displace native species. The Europeans also came in and built houses grasslands were, and with every house came a lawn, which introduced a lot of alien grass. I used to think that planting green lawns everywhere would be a really positive contribution to our ecosystem, but I have learned that we need to make a conscious effort in planting the right plants.

As we’ve seen in the previous chapters we read in this book, McCully discusses the European colonization. Just like we’ve discussed with the birds and the trees, the Europeans exploited nature. The Europeans had a sense of entitlement to the land and viewed nature as there just to serve the physical needs of man, and that is why they destroyed it (102). What is ironic about this is that, in the end, man relies on a stable ecosystem, and the harsh treatment of the natural environment that people think they are benefiting will come back and be bad for humans in the future. In order for nature to best “serve” humans, it cannot be disturbed by them.

Lastly, McCully puts an emphasis on the interdependence of species and how a change in one species can affect the whole ecosystem. This has been a big discussion in our class. So many things can affect the balance of the ecosystem. For example, birds can help carry the seeds of native plants, highlighting the importance of corridors. Humans are a species that obviously have a huge impact on the ecosystem. All species in an ecosystem affect each other in some way, and therefore we must be careful in conserving endangered species and in introducing new species.

Before this class and reading this paper, I would have found the term “urban ecosystem” to be an oxymoron. I used to think if a specific area is man-made or urbanized, it is unnatural and therefore, it cannot be an ecosystem. However, after reading the definition of an ecosystem, “a set of interacting species and their local, non-biological environment functioning together to sustain life” (294), I realized that urban cities definitely fall under this category. Not only are cities composed of ecosystems, but these urban areas actually provide ecosystem services that benefit the human population and improve the quality of life. This paper describes some of the kinds of ecosystems that can be found within urban areas and explains why these ecosystems are important. It talks about how the lack of these ecosystems can cause big problems and how we need more vegetation and wetlands. It is important to remember that this is talking about Stockholm, Sweden, which proportionally has more vegetated areas than the European average (296), which probably makes it better off than New York City. Therefore, while reading this, I kept in mind that a lot of the problems discussed must be even worse in New York and that these ecosystem services are even more necessary here.

There are many different natural urban ecosystems including street trees, lawns and parks, urban forests, cultivated land, wetlands, lakes or seas, and streams (294). It is important to maintain these ecosystems and get the most out of the services they provide. There are some services that are available on a global scale, but it is important to use our local ecosystems for direct services as well. This is because there are many problems, such as noise pollution, that cannot be fixed from services that come from a distance.

Air filtering is one of the biggest and well-known services provided my ecosystems, but it is often taken for granted and not always fully understood by everyone. Most people know that plants provide oxygen and reduce carbon dioxide, but what they don’t know is how this is done and what kind of vegetation is optimal for reducing pollution. I learned that the more leaf area, the more filtration, but we also have to keep in mind which trees are more sensitive to cold winters and to pollution. Therefore, it is not just important to plant trees, but we need to make sure to plant the right mix of trees (295). Vegetation is also helpful when it come to noise reduction. No one likes noise and the high noise levels in cities can harm many species. If we make people aware that soft vegetated grounds can help reduce noise levels, people would be more willing to plant soft lawns where there might be too much concrete.

I also found it interesting how natural urban ecosystems could help regulate climate. I find it to be especially true in New York City that in the summers it is hotter in the city than on Long Island, which is where I live. I found it very interesting how in Chicago a 10% increase in trees lowered heating cost significantly in the winter (296). Making people aware of economic benefits like these can really help convince more people to care. Similarly, it was interesting to read how much money can be saved for drainage and sewage treatment by creating more green spaces. The last service is the recreational value the ecosystems provide. People love going to parks and activities like fishing (298). As we discussed before, this paper goes into detail about how exposure to green spaces helps people psychologically.

I learned a lot of new things from reading this. Instead of just listing the ecosystem services and their benefits, it explained the problems and benefits in a very technical way so I could learn exactly how these services work and what the optimal conditions are to get the most out of these services. All this stuff that I did not know before showed me how we take our ecosystems for granted. This paper explains how we depend so much on the ecosystems, but at the same time, many of us don’t make conservation a priority because we do not realize how much we depend on it. More people need to read papers like this in order to put into perspective how important the environment is so people can begin to care about it and make a difference. It can really help if people are more aware about these services, so they can incorporate them into urban planning.

The first half of chapter 9 was actually very heartbreaking to read. Just like in chapter 8, how McCully describes the wasteful destruction of the trees by the Europeans, she talks about how rapidly and a carelessly the Europeans killed thousands of birds. However, in chapter 8, although I learned a lot about the importance of trees and other plant, I still understood how it was possible for the Europeans to behave the way that they did. Unlike animals, plants don’t have feeling and therefore are not in pain as they are killed. On the other hand in chapter 9, while I am definitely not an extreme animal lover, I could not understand how the Europeans could possibly kill and watch a bird’s life end or, perhaps even worse, watch the birds suffer from gun shot wounds. There are some animals that I have disliked or have been scared of because they can be dangerous. However, I have always thought of birds as innocent and beautiful creatures. Their singing is pleasant and they never cause us any harm. Yet hundreds of years ago, their bones were used as objects, their feathers were used as plumes, and they were hunted as a sport. This was extremely wasteful and unnecessary. It is crazy how the sky used to be dark from the abundance of the passenger pigeons, which are now scarce. A specific line that stuck with me was “hundreds of twitching pigeons litter the fields” (131). I cannot comprehend how people could kill and watch this sight for fun. In more recent years, the big threats to the birds were pollution and pesticides. This can be seen as a more indirect way of killing birds, however the consequences were still deadly.

However, the more I progressed through chapter, the more I felt there was a reason to stay positive. When I think of environmental efforts, I think of preservation and how we can conserve what we have left. With all the disruptive human activity, I never really thought it would be practical to restore what was once destroyed. However, I was very surprised and pleased to read about the recovery of many different kinds of birds in New York. For example, on page 134, McCully talks about how the egrets were nearly exterminated. However, two pages later, she talks about how the egrets increased and became numerous. A big reason for this was the creation of legislation protecting birds and prohibiting the sale of them. Also, many of the bird species that declined from the poisonous pesticides were restored by the ban on DDT. On the last page, she writes, “more bird species are increasing in abundance or remaining stable than are declining” (145). This showed me that legislation and environmental efforts could actually make a difference and bring back species, in addition to maintaining what we have. It also helps that there are some birds that are adapted to the urban habitats, such as the owls, which I never knew were living in Central Park. Another example is the peregrines, which live on bridges (140). I do not like how McCully ends the chapter when she says. “What has been destroyed can never be created again” (145). While the trees discussed in chapter 8 may not be able to be restored where buildings currently stand, it is nice to know that, although it may be difficult, if we work hard, there is still hope in restoring and maintaining the birds of New York City.

I think this biodiversity assessment handbook is a very good solution for getting people to care and make a positive difference. In class we always talk about how one of the biggest problems is that people are uneducated about nature do not learn enough about the importance of biodiversity in school. We also talked about how many of the activists come off as aggressive and make people feel blamed for the problems. This handbook was made so that it can be the perfect read for anyone. It was made for everyone from uneducated citizens and interested students to experienced researchers and advocates. There were a lot of terms that I did not understand before reading this, and handbook was very clear in explaining things. It is very easy for someone who knows very little to learn a lot about the city’s biodiversity.

In addition to it being very clear and insightful, I also liked the tone. The previous readings had a more harsh and negative tone, because they talk about how much of the city’s ecosystems were degraded and lost (which does get addressed in this text as well). However, this handbook also focuses a lot on the positives by saying that there is actually a surprising array of rare species in New York City. Instead of only focusing on what is missing, it also focuses on all the nature that we have. It also talks about all the positive plans and legislation that have been put in place to make some progress, although there still needs to be more. In addition, they even go as far as to say that, although many ecosystems were destroyed, the tall buildings and bridges have actually become their own ecosystems and homes to new species (16). I thought that was a very interesting fact and a positive way to look at things.

One of the best parts was when it talks about all the ways in which biodiversity can improve the quality of life. It is very persuasive in convincing us to take care of the environment because of all of the benefits we can get from it. This includes food and medicine, such as aspirin, which comes from the willow tree. It also talks about how the shade from plant provide cooling and that plants reduce carbon dioxide and provide oxygen for us to breathe. Another example is how oysters filter out the sediments in the water so other species can live. Stormwater is absorbed by plants and the soil, removing pollutants and replenishing underground water supplies (4). The list goes on, but one of the most compelling benefits is how our connection to nature can help with human health. Research shows that contact with nature can help us physically and mentally by restoring concentration, calming anxiety, and reducing stress and aggression (5). If more people knew this, I really think it would make a difference. A very interesting statistic in this reading said that each year rich biodiversity provides $33 trillion worth of natural services, which is almost twice the global gross national product (4). This is a great way to get the ignorant or uninvolved readers to care about helping with conservation and restoration efforts.

However, in addition to all the positives, the handbook still makes the reader aware of all the problems that exist and how to fix those problems. It describes the species and ecosystems that have become extinct or endangered because of human interference and also talks about the threats to biodiversity. It talks about the dangers of invasive species, some accidentally brought here from Europe, and overabundant species. One of the issues I never thought about was how much the climate changes endangers some species and attracts new species, completely changing our ecosystems and the timings by which they work over recent years. And, of course, it talks about all the forms of pollution that destroys the ecosystems. It then goes on to talk about how we can restore much of what was lost and conserve the little that we do have left through laws and plans and by explaining how to perform a habitat assessment. I truly believe that if this handbook was assigned as a reading in a variety of different classes in many schools, it can have a very positive affect on how people respond to our current problems.

In this chapter, McCully does an excellent job of making the reader sad and concerned about what has happened to the environment, specifically the trees. I like that she starts and ends off with the importance of the stories and connections to the trees. She begins the chapter with her own personals story and the elderly man’s connection to nature. She also describes some of the reasons why we have connections and depend on trees. For example, she says, “they live beyond our individual lives” and “since they outlive us, they connect us to the future places where they grow. Reading this immediately before going into the ways in which the environment was degraded, made what follows feel especially harsh.

Influenced by what was going on in Europe, the colonists saw the trees as simply a means to make supply lumber and fuel to make a profit. By the end of the 17^th century, only one eighth of Europe was still wooded, and they brought the practice of deforestation to America. One of the things that really shocked me was the amount of wood used for shipbuilding and how it drastically depleted the forests. They cut down thousands of the oldest and largest trees for just one ship. These were trees that took hundreds of years to grow and they were just cut down so quickly. McCully also mentions how the deforestation didn’t just take away the trees, but it also wiped out the species dependent on those habitats.

One of the points that I found interesting was that the American colonists thought that wood was “free for the taking.” This brings up the question of whether we have the right to destroy the land we “own.” Technically, the trees were here before us, so why do we have a right to come and knock them down for our own benefit. McCully also touches on an idea that we discussed in class. She said that in regard to wood, they were “bent only upon their present advantage, utterly regardless of prosperity.” Also today, people are selfish and therefore do not prioritize the conservation of the environment. People do not think it is important and continue to destroy and pollute the environment, without thinking about the long term affects that will impact future generations. This shows that the attitudes we have today can be traced all the way back to the attitudes of Europeans prior to American settlement.

Another thing I found interesting was the comparison on the view of trees between the Native Americans and the Europeans. Both used the trees for benefits such as food, fuel, tools, and construction materials. The difference between the Native Americans and Europeans was their attitudes. While the Europeans cut down trees for a profit, the Native Americans had a more spiritual relationship with nature. Even though they exploited the land to an extent, the Native Americans lived long enough on the land to learn about the importance of preserving for future generations. To harm the trees “would have been like killing their elders.” This goes back to showing how important it is to have a connection to the environment. When we talk about ways to help conservation efforts today, it all starts with getting people to care. People do not want to make any efforts to save the environment because they do not feel the connected to it. This is especially a problem in New York City, since there is so little exposure to nature, that it is almost impossible for people to develop that connection on their own. Like McCully concludes, we must do everything we can to share stories about nature and to get people more connected to it in order for there to be any hope for preserving and restoring our natural environment.

Reading the paper “Manahatta: An Ecological First Look at the Manhattan Landscape prior to Henry Hudson” by Eric W. Sanderson and Marianne Brown gave me a new perspective on the island of Manhattan. I am in Manhattan every day and, besides for the few patches of green found in our parks, all I ever see are concrete and tall buildings. I always knew that everything on the island was man-made, but I never stopped to think about what was here before the island was touched by humans, specifically before the European settlement. A current map of Manhattan looks like a flat grid of streets and buildings. However, the British Headquarters Map revealed hills and valleys, fields, ponds, streams running through the island, wetlands, beaches, and forest ecosystems. However, since then, those “hills were leveled, valleys filled, and streams diverted into sewers; new buildings, streets and infrastructure were continually being constructed” (Sanderson 547). I also used to think of Central Park as such a natural environment, since it is the largest and oldest park in New York. But I found out from this article that is actually completely man-made covering what was originally many freshwater wetland ecosystems (Sanderson 557).

Manhattan went from being covered 1% by human-dedicated areas and being almost completely natural in 1609 to being covered 97% by human-dedicated areas in 2004 (Sanderson 553). However, I am having trouble deciding whether this drastic transformation is good or bad. On one hand, it is sad to know that so many ecosystems, including the beautiful natural land and all the different species within the island were destroyed. In the 1600’s, someone quoted Manhattan to be “one of the finest and most fruitful lands in that part of the world,” and another person said, “The soil is good” (Sanderson 546). It is unfortunate that we are unable to experience that same beauty that once existed here.

On the other hand, I still love what Manhattan has become. The unique buildings, skyscrapers, artsy areas, and even Times Square, are all things that make Manhattan beautiful today. No city has as nice of a man-made skyline as Manhattan. New York is the financial capital of the world and Manhattan is one of the best fashion centers in the word, with amazing shops and restaurants. There is a reason why New York is such a heavily populated city and why so many tourists come from all around the world to see Manhattan. While the conservation of our natural ecosystems should always be a priority, it is important to stay positive and remember that there are so many ecosystems and untouched lands throughout the world, but there is only one Manhattan, and nothing compares to the beauty and uniqueness that exists on the island is today.