The authors argue that region plays a greater significant role in women’s autonomy in India than religion, nationalism, or education. This is a very surprising claim because past research has observed that factors such as education or religion would influence a woman’s independence. They measured a woman’s autonomy as the power to make economic decisions, mobility, no threat from husband in terms of force, violence, etc, and access to and control over economic resources regarding ownership of property, buying expensive things such as jewelry. Southern region of Tamil Nadu showed that women had greater autonomy here than in northern regions of Uttar Pradesh in India or the Pakistani state of Punjab. While this research does not directly relate to reproductive health, it contains implications that could be used to further my claim regarding culture. Women’s autonomy also extends into the realm of reproductive health. If a woman has the power to make her own decisions, she would have control over decisions that affect her body. Thus, the authors provide a potential influential factor on the autonomy of a woman. Women may have varied control over the health decisions depending on the region they live in. But I am not prepared to dismiss the impact of religion and education on reproductive health rights as readily as the authors.
Grimes, David A, Benson, Janie, Singh Susheela, Romero Mariana, Ganatra Bela, Okonofua, Friday E, and Shah, Iqbal H. “ Sexual and Reproductive Health 4: Unsafe abortion: the preventable pandemic.” 386 (2006): 1908- 1919. Oct 2008 <www.thelancet.com>.
Enjoying safe abortion and post abortion care are fundamental rights of women. Yet, not every country provides this basic right to women. Many countries around the world have abortion rights in their legal framework albeit with certain conditions attached. Nevertheless, unsafe abortions continue to pandemic levels. The paper in this series explains why this is an unacceptable and preventable cause of maternal mortality. It offers some useful statistics on Asia relative to the world. It states that aside from the usual reasons of having an abortion, social and cultural taboos compel women to undergo unsafe abortions. This insight corroborated with something I read on the Ultra Violet blog regarding the topic of abortions. It discussed the hushed whispers and snide comments that would follow the woman who was thought to have aborted her child. Moreover, the study claims that countries would save expenditures in health care if access to safe abortions is increased through diligent political and legal policies. The paper also promotes the use of a safer technology to conduct safe abortions. It claims that it is an inexpensive and very safe to use and therefore should be used by all countries, especially the developing ones. While this may be true, I wonder why the governments have not embarked on this course already.
Singh, A and Arora, A.K. “How much do rural Indian husbands care about their wives’ health.” Internet Journal of Health 5.1 (2006): 11.
In a research project, Indian men’s knowledge and care for their wives’ health was studied. In revealing results, it showed that while there was a“reasonably” positive attitude of husbands regarding their wives’ health problems, this attitude of husbands’ need to “carefully nurtured.” Although some men knew the basics of reproductive health, many were uncertain about the menstrual cycle or the safe period for pregnancy. Their behavior towards their wives when they had health problems and after they gave birth was also taken into consideration. The study was conducted in rural areas. The results of the study show that the stereotypical roles of women and familial influence are rampant in their decision to have children or communicate their health concerns to their spouses. This study brings in a fresh and a different perspective to the debate of women and their reproductive health rights. This is the first time in what I have read so far that has stressed the involvement of men as a must. Men’s involvement and education about women’s reproductive health could be a key factor in determining a winning and effective women’s reproductive health policy.
Stephenson, Rob and Tsui Amy Ong. “Contextual Influences on Reproductive Wellness in Northern India.” American Journal of Public Health 93.11 (2003): 1820- 1829.
This study measures the environmental/ communal impact on reproductive wellness in the northern part of India, particularly in Uttar Pradesh. The five observed outcomes were general pregnancy complications during the last pregnancy, hardships experienced during labor in the last pregnancy, if symptoms of RTI/STI were experienced during the previous year, if the last pregnancy was unwanted and if the desired family size was accomplished. The last two outcomes determined the decision making power of a woman in the area. The results demonstrated that although the presence of health services is important, even more critical is the type of services offered. Overall, the conclusion of the experiment stated that community does in fact affect reproductive wellness of women. For example, if a community offered family planning services, than it was more likely that the women in that community had achieved their desired family size or if there were more than one health facilities than pregnancy and labor complications decreased. The study indicates a critical factor that might affect pregnancy or labor complications- genetics. In an attempt to use an unbiased sample, which might consist of many illiterate women, it is difficult to obtain data on family health history. The paper focused on the availability of health care services. While this is needed in evaluating reproductive health in India, it does not account the social and cultural practices of the community, which could have influenced the calculations of the last two outcomes.
Verma Ravi K and Collumbien, Martine. “Wife Beating and the Link with Poor Sexual Health and Risk Behavior Among Men in Urban Slums in India.” Journal of Comparative Family Studies (2003): 61- 74.
Verma and Collubien study the relationship between wife beating and poor sexual heath and risk behavior experienced by men in slums located in Mumbai. The results showed that one in ten woman was physically abused the year before the surveys were conducted. Men who had sexual health difficulties were more likely to physically abuse their wives. Furthermore, both men and women who observed violence as a part of their parents’ marriage were also more likely to inflict and accept physical abuse, respectively. Because there were significant differences between the responses of men and women, I remain uncertain of the results. But assurance has been provided by the researchers through a comparison of their numerical values with the results in other states around the country. Although this study is confined to male reproductive health, its impact of wife beating has ramifications for women and their reproductive health. Aside from abuse of any kind being morally wrong, if the beatings are extremely severe, it affects a woman’s ability to give birth. It strips away that right from her.
Maitra, Shubhada and Schensul, Stephen L. “Reflcting diversity and complexity in marital sexual relationships in a low- income community in Mumbai.” Culture, Health & Sexuality 4.2 (2002): 133- 151.
This very interesting research illustrates the sexual dynamics between married couples in low- income communities in Mumbai. Sexual relationships should be based on “sexual equity.” The results from this study show the perspectives of both men and women on sex and sexual practices. Inherent, male domination in sexual relationships are found. The study revealed that men believed their wives to be never interested in sex, and therefore, if when they (men) wanted sex and their wives were not compliant, it was their “duty” to make their wives ready for sex, using force if necessary. Women, on the other hand, thought they were obligated to have sex with their husbands even when they were too tired to have sex. This study is extremely useful for my thesis. It gives me the cultural values and mores that Indian men and women are embedded in. A change in thinking and traditional and stereotypical mentality about men and women is necessary for women to gain sexual equity. Once again, I am a bit distrustful of the data only because it is qualitative and there is no surety that the respondent did not exaggerate or alter their responses due to shyness, humiliation, fights, etc.
Santhya, K.G. and Dasvarma, G.L. “Spousal communication on reproductive illness among rural women in southern India.” Culture, Health & Sexuality 4.2 (2002): 223- 236.
This experiment tests the degree of spousal communication regarding their reproductive health problems amid women in rural southern India. Socioeconomic factors influenced communication between spouses. It was found that communication is low and even when there wives’ communicate their problems, they do so in very broad terms hoping that men would understand and not ask any more questions. The study recommends “interactional education programs” and “mass media campaigns” promoting couples talking freely about the wife’s health. Men should be inclusive to any reproductive health reforms. Because of the power their wield in the household and their local communities, it might actually help women if they could truthfully and frankly converse about their problems to their husbands. Simultaneously, men have to be educated about the important of their wives health and their involvement in the process. Men, especially in rural areas, have a tendency to ignore their wives’ health because they deem it as unimportant or natural as this study shows. While education is necessary, it is not enough. Moreover, in rural areas, mass media campaigns might be ineffective for the lack of electricity, which would prevent the use of TV’s and radios if the poor even had the money to buy these technologies. More thought has to be given to create effective and successful strategies to encourage communication between the spouses.
Mavalankar, Dileep V and Rosenfield, Allan. “Maternal Mortality in Resource- Poor Settings: Policy Barriers to Care.” American Journal of Public Health 95.2 (2005): 200- 203.
High maternal mortality rates continue to be pervasive in developing countries because of poor resources. Often times, trained doctors are lacking, especially in rural settings. This case- study argues that admittedly developing countries are resource poor, they lack the imagination and creativity to use the resources they do have. There is no law that says that only a highly trained professional doctor can prevent death and can successfully deliver a baby. For example, in Congo, midwives were recruited locally and were given training to perform successful caesarean births. This program was highly effective. India could also promote such a program. Dais, equivalent of midwives, are already very learned about a woman’s body. It would be easier to train these women to successful deliver babies even in complicated pregnancies and labor. It is a cost- effective policy and can increase the access and number of skilled personnel in rural areas. It mixes the old with the new.
Patton, Laurie L. “Mantras and Miscarriage: Controlling Birth in the Late Vedic Period.” Jewels of Authority: Women and Textual Tradition in Hindu India. Ed. Laurie L. Patton. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002: 51- 66.
Patton discusses miscarriages in the ancient Hindu context. If a miscarriage occurred or was in the processing of occurring, Brahmins would use religions mantras, or hymns to prevent the loss of the fetus. She argues that over a period of time, the womb became increasingly separated from the body of a woman in the desperation to save the fetus. It was an extremely intriguing read, especially because it would be advantageous to find a link between the ancient texts, perceptions about miscarriage and the current state of reproductive health in India. She successfully argues that ancient myths and stories contribute insight into reproduction in ancient India. There were passages in her work that show that perhaps the traditional belief that giving birth to a son is superior to having a daughter goes back to this period. This work can be useful in laying the religious foundations and its impact on prevalent views regarding reproductive rights of women.
Jamison, Stephanie W. “Giver or Given? Some Marriages in Kalidasa.” Jewels of Authority: Women and Textual Tradition in Hindu India. Ed. Laurie L.Patton. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. 51- 66.
Jamison offers a unique view on women and marriages. Usually, women are seen as given in a marriage. They are given by their fathers to their husbands. Women are viewed as property of men to be given to other figures of authorities. Jamison argues that in the plays by Kalidasa, women also find their space in which they are the giver, implying they own things and even people before they are presented to others as gifts. This giving usually occurs within religious rituals. She specifies two plays in which the chief queens were able to either give their husband to another woman or another woman to her husband as an additional wife. This challenges the traditional view of women as property owners and no power. Although she cautions against using her analysis as a symbol of their empowerment, I still question Jamison’s analysis even after being put in a ceremonial context as she suggests. To what extent could this be seen in real life, in a life of an ordinary woman who was not of royal birth? Would she be ever seen as a giver? She also addresses the feelings of women and men when they are seen as the giver instead of the given. Men might feel resentful due to the power women gained and women would naturally want to hold on to that power.
Menon, Nivedita. “Rights, Bodies and the Law: Rethinking Feminist Politics of Justice.” Gender and Politics in India. Ed. Nivedita Menon. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999. 262- 295.
This was a really challenging read, especially because the author elaborates on the technicality and the theoretical aspects of rights, bodies and law. But her analysis of female foeticide and abortion is extremely thoughtful. It forced me to reassess some of struggles of feminists regarding the abortion law. She argues, persuasively, that in their quest to end female foeticide (aborting the fetus when it is determined that it is a female), feminists go against the basic morality and the reproductive rights of women. It is counter- productive to what they want to achieve. While female foeticide must not be condoned, feminists cannot argue for limitations in the Abortion Act. Aborting a female fetus may be the woman’s decision with no outside influence. By taking that right away from her, feminists are contradicting their own views. I had never thought about foeticide in these terms, so it was very useful to read this argument. It has to be considered in any possible policy formations regarding reproductive health rights.
John, Mary E. “Feminism, Poverty and the Emergent Social Order.” Social Movements in India: Poverty, Power, and Politics. Ed. Raka Ray and Mary Fainsod Katzenstein. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2005: 107- 153.
John adroitly correlates poverty with feminism and reproductive health rights. It is a common stereotype that poor women usually have more children. This could be due to lack of education, resources, etc. Women’s movements since the mid 70s and 80s have spoke out against population control. Population control is a violation of reproductive rights of a woman. It imposes limitations and standards upon a woman without her permission. Although abortion act was passed in the 70s and the creation of Family Planning Programmes in India, it was more a measure of population control than a health concern. John places her argument in the context of changing economic conditions including globalization and liberalization. Many view population control as a factor in reducing poverty. She argues that women suffer inequalities on several levels and all these levels must be taken into account. Economic empowerment is good and well but it cannot be the only solution to poverty. She also addresses other issues related to poverty but since it is not directly related to my topic of interest, I will not respond to it. From everything I have read, it appears that although economic empowerment and education are necessary to gain more reproductive health rights for women, a different approach has to be taken.
