The authors argue that region plays a greater significant role in women’s autonomy in India than religion, nationalism, or education. This is a very surprising claim because past research has observed that factors such as education or religion would influence a woman’s independence. They measured a woman’s autonomy as the power to make economic decisions, mobility, no threat from husband in terms of force, violence, etc, and access to and control over economic resources regarding ownership of property, buying expensive things such as jewelry. Southern region of Tamil Nadu showed that women had greater autonomy here than in northern regions of Uttar Pradesh in India or the Pakistani state of Punjab. While this research does not directly relate to reproductive health, it contains implications that could be used to further my claim regarding culture. Women’s autonomy also extends into the realm of reproductive health. If a woman has the power to make her own decisions, she would have control over decisions that affect her body. Thus, the authors provide a potential influential factor on the autonomy of a woman. Women may have varied control over the health decisions depending on the region they live in. But I am not prepared to dismiss the impact of religion and education on reproductive health rights as readily as the authors.

Grimes, David A, Benson, Janie, Singh Susheela, Romero Mariana, Ganatra Bela, Okonofua, Friday E, and Shah, Iqbal H. “ Sexual and Reproductive Health 4: Unsafe abortion: the preventable pandemic.” 386 (2006): 1908- 1919. Oct 2008 <www.thelancet.com>.

Enjoying safe abortion and post abortion care are fundamental rights of women. Yet, not every country provides this basic right to women. Many countries around the world have abortion rights in their legal framework albeit with certain conditions attached. Nevertheless, unsafe abortions continue to pandemic levels. The paper in this series explains why this is an unacceptable and preventable cause of maternal mortality. It offers some useful statistics on Asia relative to the world. It states that aside from the usual reasons of having an abortion, social and cultural taboos compel women to undergo unsafe abortions. This insight corroborated with something I read on the Ultra Violet blog regarding the topic of abortions. It discussed the hushed whispers and snide comments that would follow the woman who was thought to have aborted her child. Moreover, the study claims that countries would save expenditures in health care if access to safe abortions is increased through diligent political and legal policies. The paper also promotes the use of a safer technology to conduct safe abortions. It claims that it is an inexpensive and very safe to use and therefore should be used by all countries, especially the developing ones. While this may be true, I wonder why the governments have not embarked on this course already.

Singh, A and Arora, A.K. “How much do rural Indian husbands care about their wives’ health.” Internet Journal of Health 5.1 (2006): 11.

In a research project, Indian men’s knowledge and care for their wives’ health was studied. In revealing results, it showed that while there was a“reasonably” positive attitude of husbands regarding their wives’ health problems, this attitude of husbands’ need to “carefully nurtured.” Although some men knew the basics of reproductive health, many were uncertain about the menstrual cycle or the safe period for pregnancy. Their behavior towards their wives when they had health problems and after they gave birth was also taken into consideration. The study was conducted in rural areas. The results of the study show that the stereotypical roles of women and familial influence are rampant in their decision to have children or communicate their health concerns to their spouses. This study brings in a fresh and a different perspective to the debate of women and their reproductive health rights. This is the first time in what I have read so far that has stressed the involvement of men as a must. Men’s involvement and education about women’s reproductive health could be a key factor in determining a winning and effective women’s reproductive health policy.

Stephenson, Rob and Tsui Amy Ong. “Contextual Influences on Reproductive Wellness in Northern India.” American Journal of Public Health 93.11 (2003): 1820- 1829.

 This study measures the environmental/ communal impact on reproductive wellness in the northern part of India, particularly in Uttar Pradesh. The five observed outcomes were general pregnancy complications during the last pregnancy, hardships experienced during labor in the last pregnancy, if symptoms of RTI/STI were experienced during the previous year, if the last pregnancy was unwanted and if the desired family size was accomplished. The last two outcomes determined the decision making power of a woman in the area. The results demonstrated that although the presence of health services is important, even more critical is the type of services offered. Overall, the conclusion of the experiment stated that community does in fact affect reproductive wellness of women. For example, if a community offered family planning services, than it was more likely that the women in that community had achieved their desired family size or if there were more than one health facilities than pregnancy and labor complications decreased. The study indicates a critical factor that might affect pregnancy or labor complications- genetics. In an attempt to use an unbiased sample, which might consist of many illiterate women, it is difficult to obtain data on family health history. The paper focused on the availability of health care services. While this is needed in evaluating reproductive health in India, it does not account the social and cultural practices of the community, which could have influenced the calculations of the last two outcomes.

 Verma Ravi K and Collumbien, Martine. “Wife Beating and the Link with Poor Sexual Health and Risk Behavior Among Men in Urban Slums in India.” Journal of Comparative Family Studies  (2003): 61- 74.

Verma and Collubien study the relationship between wife beating and poor sexual heath and risk behavior experienced by men in slums located in Mumbai. The results showed that one in ten woman was physically abused the year before the surveys were conducted. Men who had sexual health difficulties were more likely to physically abuse their wives. Furthermore, both men and women who observed violence as a part of their parents’ marriage were also more likely to inflict and accept physical abuse, respectively. Because there were significant differences between the responses of men and women, I remain uncertain of the results. But assurance has been provided by the researchers through a comparison of their numerical values with the results in other states around the country. Although this study is confined to male reproductive health, its impact of wife beating has ramifications for women and their reproductive health. Aside from abuse of any kind being morally wrong, if the beatings are extremely severe, it affects a woman’s ability to give birth. It strips away that right from her.

Maitra, Shubhada and Schensul, Stephen L. “Reflcting diversity and complexity in marital sexual relationships in a low- income community in Mumbai.” Culture, Health & Sexuality 4.2 (2002): 133- 151. 

This very interesting research illustrates the sexual dynamics between married couples in low- income communities in Mumbai. Sexual relationships should be based on “sexual equity.” The results from this study show the perspectives of both men and women on sex and sexual practices. Inherent, male domination in sexual relationships are found. The study revealed that men believed their wives to be never interested in sex, and therefore, if when they (men) wanted sex and their wives were not compliant, it was their “duty” to make their wives ready for sex, using force if necessary. Women, on the other hand, thought they were obligated to have sex with their husbands even when they were too tired to have sex. This study is extremely useful for my thesis. It gives me the cultural values and mores that Indian men and women are embedded in. A change in thinking and traditional and stereotypical mentality about men and women is necessary for women to gain sexual equity. Once again, I am a bit distrustful of the data only because it is qualitative and there is no surety that the respondent did not exaggerate or alter their responses due to shyness, humiliation, fights, etc.

Santhya, K.G. and Dasvarma, G.L. “Spousal communication on reproductive illness among rural women in southern India.” Culture, Health & Sexuality 4.2 (2002): 223- 236.

This experiment tests the degree of spousal communication regarding their reproductive health problems amid women in rural southern India. Socioeconomic factors influenced communication between spouses. It was found that communication is low and even when there wives’ communicate their problems, they do so in very broad terms hoping that men would understand and not ask any more questions. The study recommends “interactional education programs” and “mass media campaigns” promoting couples talking freely about the wife’s health. Men should be inclusive to any reproductive health reforms. Because of the power their wield in the household and their local communities, it might actually help women if they could truthfully and frankly converse about their problems to their husbands. Simultaneously, men have to be educated about the important of their wives health and their involvement in the process. Men, especially in rural areas, have a tendency to ignore their wives’ health because they deem it as unimportant or natural as this study shows.  While education is necessary, it is not enough. Moreover, in rural areas, mass media campaigns might be ineffective for the lack of electricity, which would prevent the use of TV’s and radios if the poor even had the money to buy these technologies. More thought has to be given to create effective and successful strategies to encourage communication between the spouses.

Mavalankar, Dileep V and Rosenfield, Allan. “Maternal Mortality in Resource- Poor Settings: Policy Barriers to Care.” American Journal of Public Health 95.2 (2005): 200- 203. 

High maternal mortality rates continue to be pervasive in developing countries because of poor resources. Often times, trained doctors are lacking, especially in rural settings. This case- study argues that admittedly developing countries are resource poor, they lack the imagination and creativity to use the resources they do have. There is no law that says that only a highly trained professional doctor can prevent death and can successfully deliver a baby. For example, in Congo, midwives were recruited locally and were given training to perform successful caesarean births. This program was highly effective. India could also promote such a program. Dais, equivalent of midwives, are already very learned about a woman’s body. It would be easier to train these women to successful deliver babies even in complicated pregnancies and labor. It is a cost- effective policy and can increase the access and number of skilled personnel in rural areas. It mixes the old with the new.

Patton, Laurie L. “Mantras and Miscarriage: Controlling Birth in the Late Vedic Period.” Jewels of Authority: Women and Textual Tradition in Hindu India. Ed. Laurie L. Patton. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002: 51- 66.

Patton discusses miscarriages in the ancient Hindu context. If a miscarriage occurred or was in the processing of occurring, Brahmins would use religions mantras, or hymns to prevent the loss of the fetus. She argues that over a period of time, the womb became increasingly separated from the body of a woman in the desperation to save the fetus. It was an extremely intriguing read, especially because it would be advantageous to find a link between the ancient texts, perceptions about miscarriage and the current state of reproductive health in India. She successfully argues that ancient myths and stories contribute insight into reproduction in ancient India. There were passages in her work that show that perhaps the traditional belief that giving birth to a son is superior to having a daughter goes back to this period. This work can be useful in laying the religious foundations and its impact on prevalent views regarding reproductive rights of women. 

Jamison, Stephanie W. “Giver or Given? Some Marriages in Kalidasa.” Jewels of Authority: Women and Textual Tradition in Hindu India. Ed. Laurie L.Patton. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. 51- 66. 

Jamison offers a unique view on women and marriages. Usually, women are seen as given in a marriage. They are given by their fathers to their husbands. Women are viewed as property of men to be given to other figures of authorities. Jamison argues that in the plays by Kalidasa, women also find their space in which they are the giver, implying they own things and even people before they are presented to others as gifts. This giving usually occurs within religious rituals. She specifies two plays in which the chief queens were able to either give their husband to another woman or another woman to her husband as an additional wife. This challenges the traditional view of women as property owners and no power. Although she cautions against using her analysis as a symbol of their empowerment, I still question Jamison’s analysis even after being put in a ceremonial context as she suggests. To what extent could this be seen in real life, in a life of an ordinary woman who was not of royal birth? Would she be ever seen as a giver? She also addresses the feelings of women and men when they are seen as the giver instead of the given. Men might feel resentful due to the power women gained and women would naturally want to hold on to that power.

Menon, Nivedita. “Rights, Bodies and the Law: Rethinking Feminist Politics of Justice.” Gender and Politics in India. Ed. Nivedita Menon. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999. 262- 295. 

This was a really challenging read, especially because the author elaborates on the technicality and the theoretical aspects of rights, bodies and law. But her analysis of female foeticide and abortion is extremely thoughtful. It forced me to reassess some of struggles of feminists regarding the abortion law. She argues, persuasively, that in their quest to end female foeticide (aborting the fetus when it is determined that it is a female), feminists go against the basic morality and the reproductive rights of women. It is counter- productive to what they want to achieve. While female foeticide must not be condoned, feminists cannot argue for limitations in the Abortion Act. Aborting a female fetus may be the woman’s decision with no outside influence. By taking that right away from her, feminists are contradicting their own views. I had never thought about foeticide in these terms, so it was very useful to read this argument. It has to be considered in any possible policy formations regarding reproductive health rights.

John, Mary E. “Feminism, Poverty and the Emergent Social Order.” Social Movements in India: Poverty, Power, and Politics. Ed. Raka Ray and Mary Fainsod Katzenstein. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2005: 107- 153.

John adroitly correlates poverty with feminism and reproductive health rights. It is a common stereotype that poor women usually have more children. This could be due to lack of education, resources, etc. Women’s movements since the mid 70s and 80s have spoke out against population control. Population control is a violation of reproductive rights of a woman. It imposes limitations and standards upon a woman without her permission. Although abortion act was passed in the 70s and the creation of Family Planning Programmes in India, it was more a measure of population control than a health concern. John places her argument in the context of changing economic conditions including globalization and liberalization. Many view population control as a factor in reducing poverty. She argues that women suffer inequalities on several levels and all these levels must be taken into account. Economic empowerment is good and well but it cannot be the only solution to poverty. She also addresses other issues related to poverty but since it is not directly related to my topic of interest, I will not respond to it. From everything I have read, it appears that although economic empowerment and education are necessary to gain more reproductive health rights for women, a different approach has to be taken. 

Aronson, E., Wilson, T., & Akert, R. (2007). Social Psychology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

1. Author’s thesis: This textbook is the standard textbook in social psychology classes. There is no one specific thesis, but the goal is to explain people in social groups. This is absolutely necessary in understanding the dynamics of NRMs. Issues tackled in the textbook are conformity and influence in social groups.

Agree or disagree, state reasons why/why not: Not a matter of agreement or disagreement in this instance, but the power of conformity and influence in social groups will help me in stating the importance of such groups on the individual.

How will this aid in the development of my thesis: By showing the mechanisms underlying such groups and the power that they possess, it will be easier to demonstrate certain specific theories of social influence.

Capps, Donald. (1968). Orestes brown: The psychology of religious affiliation. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 7, 197-209.

1. Author’s thesis: A combination of social factors and personal characteristics are what influenced Orestes Brown to seek religious affiliation. The emphasis being on the interaction of these two aspects.

Agree or disagree, state reasons why/why not: This is a more holistic view of why people (in this case, only the case study) affiliate to religious institutions. The author makes a convincing case, therefore, I agree.

How will this aid in the development of my thesis: Although my main objective is to prove the power of social influence and how all of us can be persuaded into such groups, it is my responsibility to understand that “personality factors” affect the propensity to join such groups and will have a markedly effect on those who join. I will use the case study to support this point.

Dein, S., and Barlow, H. (1999). Why do people join the Hare Krishna movement? Deprivation theory revisited. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 2, 75-84.

1. Author’s thesis: The author explores the theory of deprivation as a main reason of why people join such groups by using the Hare Krishna movement.

Agree or disagree, state reasons why/why not: The theory of deprivation is one of the theories that I want to explore in my research, but in conjunction with other one as well. In terms of agreement or disagreement, it must be stated that I “agree” with the authors’ findings and conclusions.

How will this aid in the development of my thesis: At the heart of this journal article, lies the basic question of my research. Why do people join NRMs? The theory of deprivation is one of the reasons why people join, or at least one that I find to be relevant.

Festinger, L., Riecken, H., & Schachter, S. (1956). When Prophecy Fails. New York, NY: Harper Torchbooks.

1. Author’s thesis: The authors wanted to explore why proselytizing occurs after disconfirmation and listed three instances when this can happen: conviction, commitment, and most vitally social support when disconfirmation occurs.

Agree or disagree, state reasons why/why not: Social support is of utmost important when trying to hold on to one’s convictions – even after an unexpected occurrence, such as disconfirmation. Festinger et al. were very careful in delineating the conditions under which these things and occur and were successful in supporting their points through case studies. Their argument was sound and persuasive.

How will this aid in the development of my thesis: The book does not attempt to explain why people join, but rather why people hold on to the convictions that they initially have, even after many obstacles. Undoubtedly, questionable NRM’s members face this problem and the theory presented here will aid in explaining why they remain loyal to it, without relying on past explanations, such as mind control or “brainwashing.”

Galanter, Marc (1999). Cults: Faith, Healing, and Coercion. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

1. Author’s thesis: Galanter explores the typical reasons why people join cults and adopts the typical social psychologist’s position, a negative one. The individual is in search for the groups, or rather, deindividuation must occur for such an individual to join such groups.

Agree or disagree, state reasons why/why not: Disagree with most of Galanter’s view on why people join and his approach on the subject. Although, his book is the most comprehensive guide on cults that I have read so far, he treats it as a negative entity, which manipulates individuals. I will not refute many of his points on how people join, but will definitely be very critical of the approach which he takes when describing them

How will this aid in the development of my thesis: Cohesion, interruption of schema, amalgamation/enmeshment of the self within the group are all issues that Galanter focuses on and will serve in enriching my argument, but the logistics of his research take an unsuitable approach.

Horgan, John (2005). The Psychology of Terrorism. New York, NY: Routledge.

1. Author’s thesis: A three-piece model in which “normal” individuals can become involved in the world of terrorism.

Agree or disagree, state reasons why/why not: Horgan refutes the common misperception of people having a propensity to join “terrorist groups’ or them possessing certain innate personality traits which make them more prone to it. This is in the vein of my thesis and would like to explore it further.

How will this aid in the development of my thesis: Once again, the power of social influence is reiterated in the work of Horgan. By deconstructing the ideas that people might have of a “terrorist personality” and through case studies of terrorists, he shows that even the most normal individuals can become enamored with such dangerous ideals. His approach is that of interaction effects, not main effects, something that I will heavily emphasize.

Paloutzian, R., Richardson, J., and Ramdo, L. (1999). Religious conversion and personality change. Journal of Personality 63, 1047 – 1079.

1. Author’s thesis: Personality changes occur throughout a conversion and there is hard data that can be provided to support such a claim.

Agree or disagree, state reasons why/why not: Unsure of my stance on such a one-dimensional field of psychology. It seems like personality psychologists are only concerned with personality traits and ignore the obvious social group influence. By default, I would have to state my disagreement.

How will this aid in the development of my thesis: In the beginning phase of my paper, I want to introduce why taking the “personality” psychology aspect in explaining something as complex as why people join NRMs is inappropriate. This journal article will serve this purpose, being that many questions were left unanswered and could not be detracting from merely studying “personality.”

Shaffer, B., and Hastings, B. (2007). Authoritarianism and religious identification: Response to threats on religious beliefs. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 2, 151-158.

1. Author’s thesis: Psychometric scale was developed by author which could measure authoritarianism and how it pertains to religious fundamentalism. Results showed positive correlation between these two variables.

Agree or disagree, state reasons why/why not: Disagree. It is difficult to contest that one characteristic predisposes individuals to religious fundamentalism. Personality Psychology is too-narrow-minded in its focus and misses the entire point. Scales can be used to help determine which individuals are “prone” to joining such groups only after social situations have been reviewed.

How will this aid in the development of my thesis: I will use this journal article to enlighten and show the reader how, even with statistical proof, such a limited perspective can be achieved. Once again, the holistic approach will be emphasized.

Ulman, C. (1982). Cognitive and emotional antecedents of religious conversion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 183-192.

1. Author’s thesis: A healthy combination of social situations along with personality traits (and the subsequent changes) aid greatly in religious conversion.

Agree or disagree, state reasons why/why not: Most certainly agree with the author’s point of view. More importantly though, his approach towards the subject of religious conversion is important, given that he combined personality psychology and social psychology. On the other hand, greater importance should have been placed on the situational aspect.

How will this aid in the development of my thesis: A model to emulate and praise as I begin writing about how we should study people that join NRMs.

Zimbardo, Philip (2007). The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil. New York, NY: Random House.

1. Author’s thesis: Attributional references are grossly overestimated; situational attributions are the ones that count the most. Zimbardo draws upon the Stanford Prison Experiment and talks about Abu Ghraib and how seemingly “normal” people can perform the most atrocious acts.

Agree or disagree, state reasons why/why not: Agree with the overall thesis of the work. Situational attributions are the ones to take into account, but should not be limited to only actions that emanate from the dark side of humankind.

How will this aid in the development of my thesis: I will be using this book substantially as it offers one of the most exceptional cases of situational power, instead of attributional one. On the other hand, it is useful to note that Zimbardo talks about deindividuation and about the negative aspects when one becomes part of the group, without realizing that the group can serve the individual in a positive manner.

1. Bai, Juyi. “The Song of Everlasting Sorrow (Chang hen ge).” Repository of Chinese Literature. 2003 Feb. 7.

Poet Bai Juyi retells the fall of the Tang Dynasty from its glory and the quintessential femme fatale figure of traditional China—Imperial Consort Yang Gui Fei. Historically, after Yang’s entrance into the palace, the Emperor focused his time and attention solely on her, neglecting national affairs of all kind. In popular culture and belief, Consort Yang is blamed as the evil seductress responsible for the fall of the nation. Devoted to the nation and the people, the troops demanded the death of Consort Yang before they would continue to march on to safety. Most unwillingly, the Emperor was finally left with no other choice. He gave the command for one of the soldiers to strangle her to death. Through this poem, Bai casts an entirely different light upon her altogether. She is no longer a temptress, but rather a victim. The poem romanticizes and idealizes both her and her relationship with the emperor. It is told through the perspective of the emperor and his longing for her after her death. The title of this poem, which Wang Anyi borrows for her novel serves as a subtext for the work. The influence of the poem is even more explicit at times, as in direct usage of certain lines as the heading of sections of the novel. The portrait that Bai paints of Consort Yang is significant for the implications of Wang Anyi’s intent in viewing her protagonist. His redefinition of Consort Yang as a victim calls the reader to redefine the term of femme fatale itself. By the same extension, Wang Anyi implicitly signals for the reader to view the protagonist through an alternative perspective.

2. Chang, Eileen. “Writings of One’s Own.” Written on Water. Trans. Andrew F. Jones. Weatherhead Books on Asia Ser. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005. 15-22.

Zhang Ailing’s essay responds to the Chinese scholar Fu Lei’s criticism that her serialized novella Chained Links, following the acclaimed “A Love that Topples a City” and “The Golden Cangue,” is too trivial in its concentration on the domestic, neglecting nationalistic values. Within this essay, Zhang not only discusses her own writings, but also contemplates the relationship on literary theory and the work, arguing her purpose of producing literature, namely, she prefers to portray desolation over tragedy, for only the former can provide a sense of “equivocal contrast.” Thus, its impact is much more profound and its effect more realistic. She states that her main intent is to strive for a greater degree of realism within her works. Hence, in engaging in equivocal contrast, she chooses not to use themes of extremes such as good and evil, unlike her classicist predecessors, pointing to what I argue is a form of antiheroic writing.

3. Cheng, Stephen. “Themes and Techniques in Eileen Chang’s Stories.” Tankang Review. 8.2 (1977), 169-200. Rpt. In Short Story Criticism. Ed. Anna J. Sheets. Vol. 28 Detroit: Gale Research, 1998. Literature Resource Center. Gale. CUNY Libraries. 13 Sept. 2008 .

Cheng argues that Zhang Ailing is innovative in that she understood that evil cannot be solved by a perfect social system, for it arises from desire. Therefore, her stories explore the heart in search for truth and illuminate a sense of inherent sadness. Her stories are not panoramic. Here, Cheng analyzes Zhang’s points of view on heroism and desolation in her “Writings of One’s Own.” Cheng claims that within her stories, like her characters, love is also incomplete and imperfect, a combination of jealousy, hurts, joys, and delights. Regarding “A Love that Topples a City,” Cheng offers a couple of unique insights. He argues that by bringing Liusu to Hong Kong, Liuyuan essentially attempts to ruin her reputation in order for her to surrender to him. What ensues is their game of cat and mouse. Their apparent stalemate leads the two to briefly separate. Yet, this returns Liusu into the bondage of her family and she realizes that she must surrender. It is then with the Japanese attacks on the Hong Kong Harbor that leads them to see each other as being indispensable. Commenting on the “opulence and range of [Zhang’s] imagery,” Cheng sees the condition of Liusu and Liuyuan—“stranded in a fallen house in a fallen city, isolated, with almost no contact with the civilized world”—as being “the quintessence of human condition, desolation.” In that sense, I find that this story can be seen as representative of Zhang’s goals of realism within her works.

4. Chow, Rey. “Chapter 3: Modernity and Narration—in Feminine Detail.” Woman and Chinese Modernity: The Politics of Reading Between West and East. Theory and History of Literature Ser., Vol. 75. Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, 1991. 84-120.

Chow examines the role of the “vanishing superfluous detail” (84) as an approach of exploring history in modern Chinese narratives. The detail serves as a point of intersection between the old and the new through which its examination may lead to a greater understanding of both. Writers, such as Zhang Ailing, who focused on social details within their works directly undermined the male literati mainstream that stressed the importance of seriousness, versus the trivial, in fiction. Chow states that in exploring issues of femininity, Zhang approaches modernity and history with sensuous details. In this sense, Chow’s argument further explains and defends the incompleteness of Zhang’s works, with which Wang Anyi disagrees. Chow argues that the study of the detail has been consistently degendered although the spaces through which the detail manifests are conventionally associated with femininity. Chow argues that narrative will always work against a subject as representing a nation, but rather detail production that works against this program. Chow goes on to discuss Zhang Ailing in relation to the detail and femininity. She explains that Zhang’s unique literary method is “the refusal to tame or suppress even the ugliest and bleakest emotions” (113), but rather to externalize them, revealing a different approach toward history and modernity. Thus, the detail is never sublimated. Zhang redefines the detail by removing it from the conventional human interest. Her usage of details is as if piling one atop of another. One detail is only seen as being an addition to another. By juxtaposing seemingly irrelevant details, any “human ‘virtue’ ” (114) is eliminated. Details are not just of the body. Details become a form of destruction, which expresses itself through “figures of ruin and desolation,” destroying “the centrality of humanity that the rhetoric of Chinese modernity often naively adopts as an ideal and a moral principle” (114). It is through these figures of destruction that Zhang presents the world, as details apart from the ‘whole.’ Her wholeness is one that encompasses incompleteness and desolation, rather than the “idealist notions like ‘Man,’ ‘Self,’ or ‘China’ ” (114). This is what distinguishes Zhang in her approach to modernity, which manifests itself through her portrayal of characters. Unlike other writers of her time and after her, Zhang was interested in portraying the limits of humanity rather than lofty ideals. These limits are illustrated as cruelty within her narratives. Both suffer the same treatment from society of extremes. Unwilling and unaware of how to handle these factors, society chooses either to dismiss a problem as being negligible or over-generalize it as being an universal human condition. Thus, these issues of women cause the details of society to always be incomplete for women do not have the power to gain agency and these unsolved issues continue to shatter the societal dream of a collective humanity. Zhang’s narrative stands as a polar opposite to the revolutionariness rampart in modern Chinese literature. Her women stand as a reminder of the inability to truly move forward with fetters of feudal China still present. They mock the pursuit of “ ‘inner subjectivity’ and new nation’ ” (120). Zhang’s texts create a tension with the ‘historical.’ “It forces us to rethink the assumption of modernity-as-revolution in the details of form, which are defined not as the technicalities of aesthetics but as the fragmented symptoms of historically produced but epistemologically unrecognized conflicts” (120).

5. Lu, Jie. “Chapter 3 Boredom: The Female Experience of Time.” Dismantling Time: Chinese Literature in the Age of Globalization. Materialising China: Vision and Perspective Ser. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic, 2005. 83-108.

Lu explores the female experience of boredom in relation to history and time through the two texts of Lu Yan’s “Dreaming of Visiting My Parents’ Home” and Wang Anyi’s The Song of Everlasting Sorrow. Lu argues that unlike the female protagonists that proceeded those of these writers, who are dispossessed from history and perceive it as random and irrational, Wang Qiyao, confined within the interior, experiences time and history as banality. Lu claims that Wang is representative of the temporal experiences of women of the petty urban class at certain historical moments. Lu argues that the novel represents boredom as a temporal experience that resists “narrativity” (83). It is space that creates and forms the backdrop of the social condition of boredom, which in terms becomes a sort of foundation for the social system from which it is created. Thus, boredom itself is revealing of social and historical conditions. Lu claims that narrative is a tool of making sense of temporal experiences. By extension, the true meaning of narrative is the temporal experience of life. I see that this is similar to Chow’s claim of Zhang Ailing’s stress of details and the trivial over the epic. Lu stresses that Wang’s novel uses daily trivialities to reveal truths of the urban world specifically and life. Here is the most important point of Lu’s argument, in which she proposes that the novel’s representation is not the essay form, but rather gossip. This look specifically focuses on details of domestic interiority that consist of banal objects of everyday life. Lu argues that Wang Qiyao is an ahistorical figure, completely oblivious of, isolated from, and indifferent of the historical changes occurring all around her. I will argue that her apolitcalness is an extension of this “ahistoricity.”

6. Miller, Arthur. “Tragedy and the Common Man.” The Theater Essays of Arthur Miller. (Viking Press, 1978) pp. 3-7.

Miller argues that the literary and dramatic mode of tragedy is by no means exclusive to those of high ranks, but even more so for the modern common man. He gives three reasons for why tragedy is applicable for the common man: 1) classic works of tragedies contain universal emotional responses; 2) in discussing circumstances outside of literature, tragedy is applied to everyone; 3) the popularity of tragedies among the masses speaks to an understanding of and connection to those situations. Miller argues that tragedy is evoked when the reader observes a character, who is willing to risk her or his life in order to secure a sense of personal dignity and gain a rightful position in society. Particularly fascinating is his view of the tragic flaw, which he defines as one’s “inherent unwillingness to remain passive in the face of what [s/]he conceives to be a challenge to [her/]his dignity.” Thus, it is only those who remain passive that are considered “flawless.” A common man’s defeat is still laudable if it was the ultimate result of a struggle to challenge what has been unchallenged. In then viewing Wang Qiyao of The Song of Everlasting Sorrow, her passivity is a key quality in excluding her from the categorization of being a tragic heroine. Her life is tragic, but she is not a heroine.

7. Pearson, Carol and Pope, Katherine. “Chapter 1: The Female Hero.” The Female Hero in American and British Literature. New York: R. R. Bowker Company, 1981. 3-15.

The scholars argue that our understanding of a hero has been skewed into a narrow definition of what is basically the privileged man of the dominant racial group. This definition asks one to rethink the conventional assumptions of macho heroes of the epic literary mode. Pearson and Pope argue that female heroes often challenge social norms and in turn transform the social order. They claims that heroes who are outsiders due to their gender, race, or socioeconomic status are always revolutionary. I question their thoughts on the adverse of this statement. Does my observation of both Liusu and Wang Qiyao as not being revolutionary automatically equate them as being antiheroines? In regards to the novels of Wang Anyi and Zhang Ailing, what may seem to be breaks of the novel in essay form are more closely associated with gossip or the detail rather than polemics for the feminist cause. Pearson and Pope go on to paint an idealistic portrayal of a female hero who seems to be less inclusive than the one that she originally presents. These claims are contradictory to both Chinese protagonists of interest for neither of them seek to establish wholeness in the outward community.

8. Prose, Francine. “Miss Shanghai.” Rev. of The Song of Everlasting Sorrow, by Wang Anyi. Trans. Michael Berry and Susan Chan Egan. New York Times Sunday Book Review. 4 May 2008.

Prose is on point in arguing that the interior spaces in which Wang Qiyao creates unchanging little worlds are exactly a testament to the revolutionary atmosphere of the changing outside world. Prose points to a tension between what changes and what remains the same, either succumbing to or resisting the passage of time and social change. She also indicates that history acts more as a backdrop to the novel and that the presence of Shanghai can be distinctly felt throughout. Prose then goes on to discuss a point that Rey Chow makes about Zhang Ailing’s writing: the focus on detail, particularly through fashion. Also supporting Chow’s claim of the intimate relation between history and the personal within narrative, Prose discusses how the characters seem to retain core qualities that are completely unaffected either by history or personal experiences. While Wang Qiyao suffers the most, she also changes the least. Her essence is not revealed to us through her thoughts or feelings, but rather the “patterns that reappear throughout her life.” She never understands the emotions of others. She is late in realizing the passion she causes in men. By the time she does, they are hurt beyond repair and must leave her. She holds onto vain values of glamour in reminiscing her past.

9. Wang, David Der-wei. “Shanghai xiaojie zhi si: Wang Anyi de ‘Chang hen ge’ ” (“Death of Miss Shanghai: Wang Anyi’s The Song of Everlasting Sorrow”). Chang hen ge (The Song of Everlasting Sorrow) by Wang Anyi. Taipei: Maitian, 1996. 3-10.

David Der-wei Wang accurately follows Wang Anyi’s intent in opening his discussion on protagonist Wang Qiyao as “they” rather than “she.” She is a product of her times and representative of the common girl’s dream of glamour and the escape from common daily life. Her Shanghai and the Miss Shanghai pageant both point to the trend of following the latest fashion. Of greatest value within this essay is undoubtedly the extended discussion between Wang Anyi as continuing the legacy of Zhang Ailing. He links Wang Anyi with predecessors of Chinese women writers, especially Zhang Ailing. The scandalous identity of Wang Qiyao can be viewed as a new perspective on Zhang’s character of ‘the mistress.’ David Wang then discusses Wang Anyi’s criticism towards Zhang’s works as being “incomplete” and being of “only sentimental drama, and not tragedy” (8). He defends Zhang in pointing out Wang’s misunderstanding of her work. He praises Zhang’s art of portraying the “unequivocal contrast” and her belief that life itself is a tale of sadness in which one is neither able to laugh nor to cry (8). It is exactly this sense of incompleteness that Zhang uses to counter the mainstream literary discourse of her times. David Wang mentions, however, that Wang Anyi’s criticism is not without its benefits. The third part of her novel, illustrating the unraveling of Wang Qiyao, is a response to her dissatisfaction with Zhang’s work. Zhang Ailing focuses solely on women during the time of liberation. David Wang attributes this to her departure from Shanghai in 1952. She simply could not have been able to write about the post-liberation period. In this sense, he sees Wang Anyi as a resolution to her work, completing the gap that Zhang left open in her work. As witnessed by this novel, Wang provides a form of afterword for the women of Zhang’s texts, by illustrating their life following liberation. This point is stressed in David Wang’s direct allusion to “A Love that Topples a City” and its protagonist Bai Liusu. Liusu is able to find a happy resolution amidst turmoil. However, through years of toiling, Wang Qiyao is unable to reach the same ending. David Wang argues that this stark contrast is indicative of Wang Anyi’s view of modern society and the destructive powers of humanity. At the close of his essay, Wang draw a comparison between the author and her protagonist Wang Qiyao. At the conclusion of the novel, Wang Qiyao realizes that she has seen her death in the form of a visual premonition during her visit to a film studio forty years ago—a woman being strangled on a bed under a flickering electric light. David Wang sees this epiphany as the union between sets of binary—reality and memory, and more importantly, the author and the protagonist. He calls attention to the forty years of Wang Qiyao and the forty years of age for Wang Anyi. He views the protagonist’s death as the author’s means of saying farewell to the Shanghai of her illusions and of her imagined memory. David Wang finally ends with asking whether everything is but a movie.

10. Zhang, Yingjin. “The Female Visions of the Modern City.” The City in Modern Chinese Literature & Film: Configurations of Space, Time, and Gender. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996. 233-259.

The critic indicates that Zhang Ailing sets three pairs of binary contrasts in “A Love that Topples a City”: (1) conflict between the modern and the conventional within the characters; (2) old-fashioned and modern lifestyle; and, (3) civilization—synonymous with the city—and destruction. Through these three sets, Zhang’s vision of the fallen city is that of an already decaying civilization. With Liusu as a femme fatale figure linked with destruction, Zhang Ailing envisions the city as a patriarchal order that is threatened by the object it desires: the woman.

Hi everyone, you should now be able to post your annotated bibliographies in the category so designated.