What has been hinted at in this weeks readings, and hinted at in a few people’s blog responses, is that race is relative.  Like Ashley said, race does not exist- it is a manmade notion that varies from culture to culture and time to time.  Whereas  Italians, and Jews were horribly discriminated against a hundred years ago, they are considered “white” now, even considered privileged by some.  The same can be said for Asians and the change of society’s perception of them.  Culturally, West Indians and other races interviewed in the readings did not view themselves as a minority until they came to America.  The same can be said for me, the second I walked into a Chinese restaurant in Flushing- being the only one handed a fork.

What I also found interesting was the idea that in other countries, there is more of a presence of “classism”- discrimination based on economic status.  However, in America, economic status and ethnicity are closely correlated: this amplifies American racism to an unimaginable level! This factor also influences the thinking of immigrants farther up the economic ladder, like Asians, who (according to the readings) have started to dissociate themselves from the “minority”.  Ironically, as we read, there is no real “majority” race in New York anymore, but only whites associate themselves that way.  Or perhaps only colored people refer to themselves as the minority?  One really can’t generalize-but in sociology: you have to generalize.

This is why it is absolutely necessary for these articles, and for Foner, to accept and simply state racism as an unarguable truth like Praveena mentioned.  There are exceptions to every rule, but it’s safe to say that virtually everyone has been racist or faced racism.  As painful as it is to read of this situation in America, and as easy as it is to brush it off as a thing of the past, it is very real.

Racism and prejudice in general is still a prevalent part of our society today. As the readings describe, many times it may not be obvious at first what people are trying to convey (unlike at the turn of the century, where racism was blatant), but it still exists and can affect those on the receiving end. Immigrants attempt to assimilate into American culture, but they meet obstacles along the way, which in this case is prejudice. For example, in Bobb’s chapter, the West Indians are discriminated against not because of who they are but because of their outer appearance. They, like many other groups of immigrants, tend to live and work amongst each other to avoid the racism. Lessinger talks about two Indians in her chapter who started his own firm and business, “shielding himself… from direct encounters with prejudice.” Indians also tend to stay within their groups, but Lessinger mentions how many successful Indians branch out and move to different neighborhoods.

These are the two specific groups from the readings, but Foner covers pretty much the rest of the ethnic groups, such as Hispanics, who can fall between the white-black categories. It seems, at least to me, that every group of immigrants has gone through discriminations at a certain point in America. Foner mentions in the first part of the chapter that Jews and Italians were not considered white. Many of the American nativists believed that intermarriage between them and the “pure-blooded” Americans would, in a sense, ruin the population. They tried to prove why certain races were inferior to make their point. Now, Foner explains how these groups are changing again, where Asians might become part of the white race.

I think this shows, like Silky and Ashley said, that race is socially constructed. It’s unfortunate how many people go by this and judge others because of it, even though technically it should not be a real thing. But, like Allexa said, racism is a worldwide issue, not just an American problem. I don’t think that Aurona’s hope is cheesy, and America may one day reach that point of acceptance.

One interesting difference that I noted between West Indians and Indians was that while West Indians seemed shocked by the racism they faces, whereas Indians were not particularly happy about it, they didn’t seem too surprised.

The Indian sub-continent has long been subject to the racial ladder due to colonialism.  Most early immigrants from India, Lessinger says, are upper class and that’s because very few lower class people received any sort of opportunity to leave their home country.  These upper-class immigrants consider themselves to be white, and one often finds that social/economic class is indeed proportional to skin color.  Lower classes work out in the sun, while upper classes enjoy the comfort of their air-conditioned homes and office.  But being white in India or Pakistan is different from being White in the U.S.A.  While this may not have been a problem for first-generation immigrants, second-generations tend to be more race-conscious and proudly declare that they’re “Brown.”

Bob writes that immigrants must adapt to the new racial structures of a country, whereas people born within a country grow into them.  I disagree.  I say the immigrants accept the racial structures within a country, whereas people born within a country work to change them.  Second generation immigrants believe that as Americans, it is their right to do whatever necessary to improve their country and that includes fighting against racism.

Like Aurona, I found the varying definitions of White to be interesting.  I remember a conversation I once had with a friend of mine a while back.  She was pretty light-skinned but she complained how she was often teased for being the darkest one in her family.  I decided right then and there that I didn’t like her family.  Another interesting thing that I remembered connected to this is my history teacher once said that Italians were considered to be the Africans of Europe, because out of all the Europeans, they had the darkest skin. 

This week’s readings are especially of interest to me because they relate to what I have recently been reading about in my anthropology class. My class has been discussing the causes and effects of globalization, and we have observed India as an example. Over the last twenty years, India has economically exploded by accepting jobs of business process outsourcing (BPO). This is the reason why you are connected with an Indian receptionist when calling customer service; they work in the service industry to assist Americans, and by familiarizing themselves with American monetary/technological methods, have thus Westernized themselves.

India has come a long way in terms of development, as they have in social acceptance. However, the country still has a long way to go. Racial discrimination still prevails in the world today, although our American textbooks may tell us that such a way of thinking was a mistake in the past. We have created the ideas of race ourselves, and these notions will not go away unless we decide to eliminate them ourselves. What we do accomplish regarding this situation, however, is changing our perceptions on what makes a person “white”. According to Nancy Foner (Ch.5: “The Sting of Prejudice”), Southern Italians and Jews were not perceived as white because they had darker and so-called “unattractive” features not associated with whites. However, as newer dark-skinned immigrants made their way into the country’s borders, Americans redrew their qualifications of whiteness and extended the label of “Other” to the influx of African Americans, Hispanics, Asians, and West Indians. These distinctions were not just based on race. Foner states that “‘nonwhite’ immigrants who are not defined as black have had the most success in being recognized for their nationality, rather than their color, and in benefiting from the ‘whitening’ effects of class.”

Vilna Bashi Bobb’s article mentions that after West Indians were culture shocked by American standards of racism, they formed close-knit residential communities. These networks proved that there is indeed strength in numbers; they all worked together to find opportunities in the labor and housing markets for one another. They still faced problems regarding discrimination, but this social outlet proved an invaluable asset to have in terms of psychological and emotional support to get through such difficult times.

Identities of Indian Americans were similarly voiced in Johanna Lessinger’s article. They quickly assimilated into American culture – more so than past groups – due to their success in education and following careers. They, however, still faced much prejudice in “the land of the free.” As they tried to work more highly valued jobs and attempted to blend into suburban communities, the white population grew more and more tense. Thus, children were teased in schools and adults were physically attacked by hate groups such as the “Dotbusters”. Yet, groups were formed by the Indian Americans to counterattack these threats, including the Indians Youth Against Racism (YAAR) and the Guardian Angels.

Race is an ambiguous topic. Americans look for answers in black-and-white, but usually have difficulty with the shades of gray in between. Like Aurona, I believe that we can further achieve racial/ethnic equality in our Western society, but only if everyone is willing to contribute the needed effort. I know I am… are you?

As this weeks readings make clear, the often hostile response to differences of ethnicity is a huge part of both the modern and historical immigration experience in America.  In fact, dealing with ethnicity-based discrimination just might be one of the few truly universal aspects of immigrating to the U.S., one faced not only African Americans, but also the Irish, Italians, Jews, West Indians, Asians, et cetera.  And of course, as we touched upon in some of the previous readings about interracial neighborhood tensions, this was more than just majority-on-minority WASPs-against-the-world racism; the Irish-on-Italian discrimination was matched by the Asian sense of racial superiority, and the West Indian distaste at being labeled “black.”  Indeed, ethnic grouping was the source of much strife and suffering amongst immigrants across the decades.

However, I disagree to some extent with the implication of Bobb’s paper (on the West Indian ordeal with racism) that this is a primarily American problem.  Racism is an unfortunate fact throughout the world: between the Han and Uighur peoples in China, the Hutu and Tutsi in Rwanda… even in Trinidad and Tobago, where Bobb suggests racial differences amount to essentially nothing compared to economic stratifications, there is in fact a good deal of historical bad blood between Trinidadians of Indian, African, and European descent.  In fact, as my anthropology professor from last semester (who has done extensive field research Trinidad and Tobago on the subject) often pointed out, much of the political strategy there is based entirely on playing these three ethnicities off of each other, using the vast wells of interracial tension to win elections.

That point aside, it’s definitely important to learn about the way ethnicity and discrimination have shaped the immigrant experience in New York, and in the United States in general.  “The Sting of Prejudice” as Foner calls it, is truly and sadly one of the most significant and impactive characteristics of American immigration.

This week’s readings were centered on an enigma of a topic – race. What is race really? Ask any anthropologist and his or her response will be something along the lines of “a figment of our imaginations.” It’s interesting really. Any other topic we read about so far this semester could have been the theme of a class on its own, but after a few lectures and papers, people may have started to lose interest. Although this could also be the case for race, a class discussing race and its inherent issues would still be more than worthwhile. Put simply, RACE DOES NOT EXIST! We use race as a means of discriminating against people casting people aside. Some people do this because they are incredibly ethnocentric, and other people just derive an unfathomable sense of pleasure from it. My professor from cultural anthropology last semester began his first lecture by saying “The things that make us the same are the things that make us different.” We are not meant to all be the same, and maybe one day, everyone will have an appreciation of these differences.

In this chapter of From Ellis Island to JFK, Foner delves into the challenges faced by many groups of immigrants. She spends a considerable portion of this chapter discussing Hispanic and Asian groups. Generally, people see two categories within race – White and Black. Hispanic and Asian immigrants don’t consider themselves as part of either of these “races;” however, ethnocentric whites are quick to label them. Although they are distinct cultural groups, they are not necessarily races and don’t want to be perceived as such. Foner tells of an interesting story – that of Luis Rodriguez. She was in a waiting room, waiting to be called in for a job interview, and was not recognized as the interviewer because she didn’t “look Hispanic.” Well, it’s not wonder she didn’t look Hispanic! Race is a made up concept – there is no genetic basis.

Additionally, both Foner and Bobb allude to the shock that immigrants experience upon arrival in America, especially the West Indians. Back in their home country, they are not only not categorized as Black, but they also see themselves to be of a higher social status than Blacks. Also, for some immigrants, they don’t have such stringent class distinctions in their home countries. According to Bobb, “In a less developed economy that works in the favor of only a very few, nearly everyone is in the same poor socioeconomic boat.” When they come to America, they are not given the same opportunities as whites and are often grouped with Blacks. Bobb writes, “No matter what the response, they all come to realize that racism is a central feature deeply rooted in the very fabric of American life and social structure.” The racism in the United States is beyond anything people can imagine before arriving here, and it is only after arriving that it becomes completely understandable. Still, people say, because the possibilities for upward mobility and achievement are nonetheless numerous.

“The Sting of Prejudice.” What an appropriate title. As my classmates have said before me, the issue of prejudice and discrimination is largely seen, not only in the past, but in the present as well. Coming to America, the majority of immigrants are forced to face one or another form of discrimination. This is inevitable anywhere. In any country, those who were there first feel intruded when other people begin to move in, and so they create a sort of defense mechanism; pre-concieved notions of their own superiority over others. In order to be superior to others, they must find a difference between themselves and outsiders to claim their higher position: their race. Americans at this time were mostly WASPs: White Anglo-Saxon Protestants. And this is exactly what they decided to hold against immigrants who were, of course, not the same race as them.

Over the years, the government tried to quell the American people, and to ease racism. However, these American people didn’t want to hear it; They had their opinions and they stuck to them. When restrictions were placed on them, they found more discreet ways of continuing their prejudices. Foner shows an example of this, when, in 1913, a NYS law stated that public places were not allowed to withhold admittance because of race, creed or color. Rather than continue placing their signs (“No Jews or Dogs Admitted Here”), resorts and private clubs began to only serve “‘resticted clientele,'” continuing to shut out the Jews, without outwardly saying so (148).

Bobb’s article concerning West Indians shows another effect of racism, the idea that all others are the same. Even though West Indians truly are not “black,” because of their skin color, and the Americans’ uncaring attitude, they were considered to be the same as blacks. The American people showed their unwillingness to even try to accept others-in doing this they further presented their careless attitude and their idea that no one else was good enough. By clumping together different groups into one category, it made it easier for the Americans to discriminate against them, claiming that they were against blacks, rather than having to make a list of every different ethnicity (African Americans, West Indians, Guyanese, etc).

These immigrants, even though they are constantly being pushed down by the society they are now a part of, they struggle to fit into the ideal group. Whereas many Hispanics and blacks have trouble doing this because of their original low status, Asians have a much easier time. Asians are generally part of a higher class when they immigrate to America, and because of this, they have an easier time meshing together with the whites, and taking jobs that require higher skills.

As Silky mentions in her post, I also believe that there is some hope for the future. Over the years, we have been able to lower, but not completely vanquish, the amount of discrimination towards immigrants. Our nation strives towards equality, and hopefully, maybe, someday we’ll get there.

This weeks readings, I agree, cover a very sensitive topic- race, class, and ethnicity. Although being a controversial topic it is very much prevalent since the formation of this “land of immigrants.” I believe that hate crimes , discrimination etc. are inevitable in such a country comprised of several different ethnicities. Thus, it is obvious that racism will arise and we have all seen this since the beginning of immigration – it continues to be a part of this country, and without a doubt, will continue. However, it is important to keep in mind that race itself is socially constructed and it is the people themselves who allow for this to happen. And of course, there is nothing in particular one can blame for this.

Therefore, in response to Aurona regarding the slow change against discrimination against hate crimes, I agree that there might be some hope -” With the efforts from all people from different various ethnicities I think it is possible to create equal opportunities for everyone.” However, like Praveena I believe that the change starts within the people, then only the government will be able to facilitate the change/movement. Since race is socially constructed it is important for the people to first acknowledge and act upon racism.

All in all,  from this weeks readings we were able to understand some of the roots or causes of racism against certain immigrant groups. Also, the reasons and ways  immigrant groups tried to “fit in” or create their “racial identities” was also a common aspect about the readings.

I agree with Aurona that this week’s general theme was racial identity in neighborhoods and as Foner titles her chapter “the Sting of Prejudice”.  We see different ethnic backgrounds coming to the United States in order to pursue the American Dream and so many are surprised to see the high levels of racism in America. I always go back to wondering how such high levels of racism came to be and why nativist were so truly xenophobic of other nations that sought opportunity. There are so many factors but one idea that I think of is the idea of nativist being prideful that they are a part of the dominant group of White Anglo-Saxon Protestants in the nation. This group probably felt that since there descendants were the first to arrive in America then every opportunity should be for them and no one else at all.  As seen in Foner, even other ethnicities with fair skin were still considered an other to these natives and still were subject to their mockery.

Although Foner does say that the racism in the United States is done subtly, to me the racism was still directly seen. In what way can a sign saying “No Jews or Dogs Allowed” be seen as subtle. That is direct racism in my opinion and for different ethnic groups experiencing this treatment in a country where people are meant to be treated equally is horrible.  No matter the race, people want to have success, achievement, and opportunity, which is one reason why different ethnicities came to America in the first place. Despite having similar motives to the natives and some being highly educated, these groups still could not have the respect of those in America because they were different. By no respect I mean some Americans did not treat different ethnic groups well at all to the point where if you were somewhat dark you were black and that was it. Ethnic identities were not even recognized by Americans at all.

As seen by the readings, the races that were in between the white and black spectrum were the races who were at times better off and at times saved from that “Sting of Prejudice”. Despite most West Indians having a good education, they were still not seen as able to advance because of their dark complexion. Nevertheless, the West Indians still did their best to confront the American Dream and some even went to the suburbs. Just to read about different ethnicities still wanting to confront the American Dream no matter what obstacles come their way is amazing. Hopefully one day will come where racism will be completely behind us and immigrants can easily pursue the American Dream for themselves and their families.

The readings this week centered around a very stimulating topic as it exists today in America. Prejudice, racial discrimination, it’s such a big taboo as Foner states it, yet like all taboos, it has such a big impact on society. That being said, I was attached to the fact that all the readings were so honest and blatant about this factor in American society. Foner can easily seem like the most shocking reading this week. Amongst its usual statistics and “matter-of-fact” ways of speaking, chapter five a Foner had an interesting point-blank truthful way of discussing the matter.

Aurona brought up some points which I wanted to address. “The hopes are that discrimination and prejudice doesn’t affect future generations. As Lessinger talked about there have been groups started to remove common misconceptions about Indians. For instance in Columbia University a group called “Indian Youth Against Racism” rose when there were recurring instances of racism among the Indian community in the late 1980’s.” Lessinger’s mention of the youth population’s reactions actually made me remember something that was discussed in class a while back. Future generations seem to take the initiative before their older relatives gain the courage to. I enjoy this notion that we take the lead in fighting against racially-charged incidents. Going beyond that, I take great pride in the fact that we seem to be breaking down this systematic racial codification slowly (VERY SLOWLY). We agreed in class that as the generations go by, we are becoming more tolerant towards one another. The mention of IYAR/YAAR shows just how active young adults are towards racial discrimination, and this sparks optimism. Another point I wanted to address briefly without getting into it was: “Obviously it’s definitely going to be a challenge but I think equal access to resources among different groups is a must for any change to occur. I think that this change has to start from the government down.” I actually think that change starts within the people, at least within this case. The government taking action and passing legislation won’t stop people from discriminating against one another (think de facto segregation). If the citizens don’t have the will, then actions taken by the government won’t do much.

With so much immigration being involved in the American equation, it provides a great issue when “codifying” everyone based on this white-black dichotomy. A lot of immigrants pouring into the country do not neatly fit into either category. However, it seems there is some sort of effort put into MAKING immigrants fit into one category or the other. “They don’t discriminate because you’re West Indian. They are discriminating because you’re black. Period” (Bobb 218).  According to Foner, Asians are often viewed as the “model minority,” or the “most Anglo-Saxon of the current wave” (162). Both quotes represent this notion of trying to “fit” immigrants into this black-white dichotomy. It was mentioned repeatedly in Foner that despite the fact that West Indians and native blacks try to separate themselves, they are often seen as one and the same. Asians, who are often viewed as the “yellow race,” are slowly being molded into the “white” category. If I remember correctly, Foner even suggested that in time to come, they may be viewed as white (the same way Italians and Jews can be seen as such these days).

I am so glad that we managed to cover such a controversial issue (an issue which is still approached with a “hush-hush!” modus operandi) in this class. The readings this week managed to shed light on this issue. It wasn’t seen as a “white versus black” sort of discrimination. In fact, Lessinger points out that there was a period of confusion when Indians were the victims of hate crimes; because it wasn’t a white group attacking a black group, ths making it harder to immediately call it a hate crime. The readings this week focused not only on how certain groups were discriminated against, but also how the members within those same groups discriminated against others. Indians refused to acknowledge any Indians living in the Caribbean; Asians felt superior to other immigrants. The list can go on. Discrimination isn’t a one sided war. It goes both ways and starts simply with a fear of the unknown.

I can’t wait to awkwardly discuss this in class on Tuesday. There will be lots more tension for Professor Vellon to poke fun at, as we uncomfortably try to talk around issues that society has discouraged us to deeply analyze. Then again, I’m probably being dramatic.