Yeshiva students taking an examination in Carpathian Ruthenia. Courtesy of Irving Howe's World of Our Fathers

One of the 613 mitsvos (commandments) that Jewish men were obligated to live by was the study of religious texts. This mitsvah acted as one of the principal commandments that defined even the most illiterate Jewish males’ lives, since the study of the Torah enabled them to both know and obey the other commandments. At the age of three, boys began studying Hebrew at their local kheyders. As their knowledge progressed, they were expected to memorize Torah passages, devote the majority of their time to study, and interpret and analyze both the Torah and the commentaries that were made about its passages by renowned rabbis. Boys that demonstrated inquisitiveness and active analysis of the texts as they progressed their education beyond the kheyders were marked as particularly excelling scholars. Such boys particularly gained merit for their devotion to study and were marked by matchmakers and prospective rich families as eligible candidates for their daughters. It was believed that educated men would make good fathers to their future children by setting examples for how to properly follow the Jewish faith.

Boys from poor families or those who did not show any exceptional scholarly aptitude usually left their studies in the beginning of their adolescent years in order to learn artisan trades.  As they married and aged, they were still expected to dedicate some time to studying the Torah, particularly on the Sabbath. Nevertheless, religious study was revered and idealized in the shtetl, so efforts were taken by poor families to provide at least some years of religious education for their sons.

Since the men in the families were the ones who were given the opportunities to learn Hebrew in order to understand prayers and the Bible, they acted as the moral and religious authorities of their households. During synagogue congregations, men and women sat separately, so that the presence of women would not distract men from the ceremony. Only men were able to see the rabbi during the ceremony and only men were called upon to read passages from the Torah throughout the sermon.  Men usually did not participate much in bringing up their children, though they were expected to test their sons’ knowledge of the Torah as their sons grew older.

The majority of families in the shtetl were unable to attain the lifestyle prescribed by the cultural ideal that men would dedicate themselves entirely to study and be financially supported by their wives. Poverty made it necessary for the men to work and contribute to their household income. However, even in such families, women still managed secular matters such as money and domestic problems. Men represented their families at religious meetings and only men were able to participate in the political decisions being made in the shtetl.

Click here to find out more about other gender roles.