During the early stages of the immigration period the reform movement dominated New York. By 1880, more than 90% of American synagogues were Reform. This movement was much more liberal than the Orthodox movement as it challenged the belief that the laws and rituals taken from the Torah required strict observance in the modern world. This early radicalism was mentioned in the 1885 Pittsburgh Platform, which dismisses “such Mosaic and rabbinical laws as regulate diet, priestly purity and dress” as anachronisms that hinder spirituality in the modern epoch. The platform stressed that Reform Jews must only accept laws that they feel “elevate and sanctify their lives” and must reject those customs and laws that are “not adapted to the views and habits of modern civilization.”

“Jewish immigrants settled throughout the United States. As they established businesses and built homes, local Jews began to put more effort into building a community. They consecrated cemeteries and held High Holy Day services, usually in a private home or a hotel meeting room. Eventually, they erected synagogue buildings and, if the community was large enough, engaged a religious leader with training in religious matters in the old country who could read the Hebrew prayers and perform the required rituals. For the congregations in Fort Wayne, Indiana, or Lexington, Kentucky, this was sufficient. As the immigrants gradually acculturated, they wanted their synagogue practice to reflect American norms. They wanted to use English as well as Hebrew in the services and to create an atmosphere to which they could bring Christian neighbors, who would come away impressed with the propriety and nobility of the ritual. Thus they moved their congregations toward Reform, not out of an intellectually based theological commitment, but as a practical response to daily life in the United States. Most of the functionaries went along with that trend. They were not theologically motivated but rather saw the practical benefits of adapting religious practices to the American patterns of living and enabling Jews to remain Jewish.” (Jewish Virtual Library)

Reform practices:

• Men and women pray together
• Pray in the vernacular
• Less dedicated to Kashrut laws
• More inclined towards secularizing

The nascent Conservative movement established a foothold with the formation of Jewish Theological Seminary in 1886 by Solomon Schechter. The faculty of the seminar would play a major role in cultivating the younger intellectuals that would propel Conservatism. The movement would eventually enjoy rapid growth in the first half of the 20th century, becoming the largest American Jewish denomination. Its combination of modern innovation (such as mixed gender seating) and traditional practice particularly appealed to first and second-generation Eastern European Jewish immigrants, who found Orthodoxy too restrictive, but Reform Judaism foreign. Solomon Schechter, one of the pioneers behind this movement, describes the Conservative movement’s superiority:

Coming from a part of the world where any adherence to the “Intelligenzia” is almost tantamount to throwing off the yoke of the Torah and the law, they still insist the secular education and modern methods in school are incompatible with Orthodox principles … the Orthodox have never succeeded in creating proper order and decorum in their places of worship and have besides, shown very little ability in the art of organization … chaos reign supreme among them” (The Characteristics of American Jews, p. 100)

Solomon Schechter Photograph / Courtesy of Topfamousbiography.com

Conservative Judaism would prove to be the most resilient due its malleability; by warding off the radicalism of the Reform movement while concurrently rejecting European traditions, it was able to change and mediate Jewish law. Thus the conservative patterns would vary by location; not all synagogues preached the exact same conservative concepts. At one point or another the Conservative pattern could be teetering towards Reform or Orthodox worship. During early 20th century Conservative synagogues varied on many issues. In 1908, a survey conducted by the Rabbinical Assembly yielded intriguing results.

• Congregations that reported the use of a uniform prayer book used nine different prayer books; however fifteen congregations reported  that no uniform prayer book was used at all
• 95 out 110 Congregations reported that they conducted Friday evening services; 23 of these only had the late service
• 81 conservative synagogues introduced either the bas mitzvah ceremony, confrimation exercices, or incorporation of children into services with adults

Jewish Theological Seminary / Photo courtesy of the Jewish Theological Seminary archives.

“Orthodoxy functioned as a cultural constraint on life of the disoriented newcomer…Conservatism came to represent the controlled thinning out of the religious fervor that immigrants brought with them”(Howe, page 201).

Eastern European Jewish migrants attempted to kindle their Orthodoxy, yet in truth “only a minority of the immigrants and few of their children remained Orthodox Jews. Several Eastern European Rabbis settled throughout the country but their influence was far more limited than it had been in their native lands” (The Jews of the United States)

It is worth delving into the exact changes that religious practices underwent. The synagogue is a worthy example. The synagogue was subject to major alteration for several reasons. Firstly synagogues were communal entities, meant to offer consolation to immigrants and bear some sort of semblance to the Shtetl’s centers of worship. Moreover synagogues also bore the role of representatives of American Judaism and thus were also employed to win the respect of the American public. No longer were synagogues acting as the ultimate bastion for the Orthodox. Secondly, Synagogues began to value aesthetic qualities and in contrast to their counterparts in Eastern Europe were constantly refurbished in order to attract Jews and Gentiles alike. Synagogues also advocated decorum and organization during services in contrast to those in Europe. Also, the rise of female participation occurred since traditional domestic practices such as candle lighting  were transferred to the synagogue.

Eldridge Street Synagogue/ Photo courtesy of http://www.eldridgestreet.org

Disorder at a Wedding in Ushpol, Lithuania / Photo courtesy of http://www.jewishgen.org/

Religious hierarchy was undermined as well. Rabbis used to be considered most important functionary of orthodox congregations. However Eastern European Rabbis found it increasingly difficult to conform to the often ritualistic and more modern American congregational practices. Non professionals were actually employed by the congregations and these wealthier laymen were often very disrespectful and and mocked the rabbis. Reverends and other charlatans would would attempt to scalp extra money by simulating marriage ceremonies. Thus Rabbis were recipients of scorn and humiliation, and they ceded their former leadership to the Chazan. Rabbis were mostly seen as figure heads.

The pictures below offer a glimpse of how Americanization intruded in all aspects of the immigrants’ lifestyles.

Translation of Poster from 1907: "Learn how to cook the American way." / Hinde Amchanitzki. Courtesy of Library of Congress1926 "What Every Woman Needs to Know About Citizenship." / Cecilia Razovsky. Courtesy of Library of Congress

Translation of 1927 poster: "Libro de Embezar, The Book to Learn How to Speak, Read and Write from Spanish-Jewish Language in English and Yiddish. " / Moise S. Gadol. Courtesy of Library of Congress

1926 "What Every Woman Needs to Know About Citizenship." / Cecilia Razovsky. Courtesy of Library of Congress