Faster than Light Travel Part 1: The Mathematical Existence and Potential Application of Warp Drives
Faster than light travel is one of the most ambitious dreams embodied in modern science fiction literature. Our current line of technological development cannot hope to travel to other star systems for at least several generations. Assuming a universal limit of the speed of light, it would take at least 4.37 years for an astronaut to travel to Alpha Centauri, our closest non-solar star. Even with future engineering developments, it will be impossible for humanity to ever explore the universe or even the galaxy with this speed limit.
In 1994, Miguel Alcubierre published a paper that mathematically modelled an effect consistent with general relativity that could move an object (i.e. a spaceship) at an arbitrary speed unbounded by the speed of light. The spaceship would be propelled forward by contracting the spacetime ahead of it and expanding the spacetime behind it. The intermediary ground between the contraction and expansion would create a ‘warp bubble’ as shown in the original figure created by Alcubierre:
Figure 1. The expansion of spacetime by a warp drive traveling in the positive-x direction, where ρ is a projection of the y and z-axes onto one axis; Image source
The most impressive component of this warp drive model is that the passage of time is identical for an observer and the traveler, meaning that no relativistic time dilation occurs in this mode of travel (Alcubierre 1994).
The issue with warp drives, however, is that the warp bubble requires a large source of negative energy and in fact violates all three energy conditions (Alcubierre 1994). Lobo and Visser concluded that these violations persist no matter what the travel speed is, squandering any hopes that slower drives might be able to use normal matter as fuel (Lobo et al. 2004). Pfenning and Ford calculated that in order to transport a single human, the negative energy of the warp bubble wall would not only need to be concentrated in a thickness comparable to the Planck length, but also be ten magnitudes more energetic than the total mass of the visible universe (Pfenning et al. 1997). In any practical sense, the original Alcubierre warp drive is impossible to create.
More recent work by Broeck has shown that the energy requirements of the drive can be significantly reduced by altering the geometry of the warp bubble. Broeck’s example resulted in an energy with the equivalent mass of several suns – still nothing feasible, but much more so than ten billion visible universes (Broeck 1999).
Further work by Natário on the motion of the bubble showed that the spacetime around the warp bubble does not necessarily need to be expanded and contracted. Instead, the motion can be viewed as sliding around the bubble around the rest of spacetime (Natário 2002). This generalized form of warp movement seems to have no reaction fueling it; in fact, Lobo and Visser determined that any form of this warp drive would be a “reaction-less drive” (Lobo et al. 2004).
A reactionless warp drive powered by a source of negative energy is certainly many generations away from its invention. Major functional components of this drive have yet to be discovered, and even then they are currently impossible to efficiently utilize. More discoveries about dark energy may lead to the creation of a field of spacetime in which all three energy conditions can be broken. Until then, humans will have to stick to rockets.
References:
Alcubierre M. 1994. The warp drive: hyper-fast travel within general relativity. 1:10
Natário J. 2002. Warp drive with zero expansion 1:9
Lobo FSN, Visser M. 2004. Fundamental limitations on “warp drive” spacetimes 1:13
Pfenning MJ, Ford LH. 1997. The unphysical nature of “Warp Drive” 6:10
Broeck CVD. 1999. A ‘warp drive’ with more reasonable total energy requirements 1:9
Calcium Ions: The Unexpected Key in Cell Communication
In my previous paper I was intrigued that a certain component kept showing up in the papers I was researching. Calcium ions showed up numerous times and I had no idea how they played such an important role in a complicated process as cell communication. It honestly never occurred to me that cell communication could be effected by a difference in electrical charge.
Calcium ions were even show to be possibly related with potassium activation (Meech 1972). Potassium conductance increased in the neuron once calcium salt was injected into the cell. Electrical charge and ions play an important role in neurons and the way they communicate. However, calcium ions are also heavily present in our immune system, as they are used to initiate the human T-cell line to produce interleukin (Imboden 1985). The immune system has dedicated areas where they store calcium ions so that it can regulate cell communication and the production of proteins such as interleukin.
Calcium ions play such an important role in cell communication because they act as a secondary messenger in multicellular organisms. They are even used in plants, such as their guard cells. They can change the guard cell’s turgor (McAinish 1997). It is even being used in nanomachine research. The nanomachines are “communicating” with cells through calcium ions and gap junctions (Nakano 2005). Gap junctions are made of connexins which are transmembrane proteins, and form into a channel that pass small molecules such as inorganic ions between neighboring cells, as seen in figure 1.
The tubes represent the connexins which transport the molecules that are represented by the circles.
Once the calcium ions pass through the gap junctions, they attach to a receiver by a selective receptor, which can then flow into the cell (Suda 2005). This alongside gap junctions are becoming the basis for a molecular communication system and can help pave the future for nanomachines in health and medicine.
Sources
Meech, R.w. “Intracellular Calcium Injection Causes Increased Potassium Conductance in Aplysia Nerve Cells.” Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Physiology 42.2 (1972): 493-99.
Imboden, J. B. “Transmembrane Signalling by the T Cell Antigen Receptor. Perturbation of the T3-antigen Receptor Complex Generates Inositol Phosphates and Releases Calcium Ions from Intracellular Stores.” Journal of Experimental Medicine 161.3 (1985): 446-56.
Mcainsh, Martin R., Colin Brownlee, and Alistair M. Hetherington. “Calcium Ions as Second Messengers in Guard Cell Signal Transduction.” Physiol Plant Physiologia Plantarum 100.1 (1997): 16-29.
Nakano, T., T. Suda, M. Moore, R. Egashira, A. Enomoto, and K. Arima. “Molecular Communication for Nanomachines Using Intercellular Calcium Signaling.” 5th IEEE Conference on Nanotechnology, 2005. (n.d.): n. pag.
Suda, Tatsuya, Michael Moore, Tadashi Nakano, Ryota Egashira, and Akihiro Enomoto. “Exploratory Research on Molecular Communication between Nanomachines.” GECCO ’05 (2005)
Escher’s Tessellations: Symmetry and Groups Expressed as Art
Artist M. C. Escher’s work, “Regular Division of the Plane,” extensively uses different tessellations that are altered into various drawings. These tessellations, or shapes that tile a plane, tended to be constructed out of altering various polygons, such as triangles and squares. In one technique, Escher would find polygons that tile a plane, and then alter them to give them forms of animals or patterns, which would result in a form of art.
Figure 1. A method of creating tiles that cover the plane. The base form is a square, and any changes that were done to one edge are done opposite on the adjacent edge [1]
On its surface, this may just be a technique an artist used to create his works. However, these works exhibit various mathematical concepts within. The first of these concepts is symmetry. Each of Escher’s tile drawings exhibit at least one of the four symmetries: reflection, rotation, glide and translation. He began studying the seventeen different plane symmetry groups extensively, as introduced to him by a paper from the mathematician Pólya, in order to produce many of these tilings [2, p. 708]. A symmetry group is the set of all isometries, or a translation that preserves distance, that map a pattern onto itself. The seventeen groups that Escher studied and emulated are also known as the two-dimensional crystallographic groups, as periodic patterns are classified by their symmetry groups in the same way crystallographers classify crystals [3, p. 441]. Escher’s artwork clearly displays various concepts of the symmetry groups, and as a result it has used to teach symmetry and translation concepts, as well as a source of discovery, such as when beginning to look at color symmetry groups [2, pp. 714, 716]. The deep rooted concept of symmetry shows the technical mathematical nature of the various pieces within “Regular Divisions of the Plane,” despite Escher’s personal investigations tending to focus on creating art, which is arguably a form of mathematics in its own right [2, p. 706].
Figure 2. The seventeen plane symmetry groups [3]
Beyond these symmetry groups, more general sub groups can be analyzed within Escher’s artwork. Using a fixed prototile, the symmetry group is used to produce the whole tiling. Because a symmetry group includes a number of isometries in order to produce the entire tiling, one can deduce that subgroups of this symmetry group fix certain edges or vertices of the tilings [4, p. 36]. This also applies to the colorings of the tiles, as different symmetries produce different permutations, or arrangements of a set, for a given tessellation.
The use of these subgroups is how mathematicians came up with fractal salamanders to tile a plane. Using one of Escher’s symmetry drawings that made use of salamanders, mathematicians recreated the design with self-similar fractal “salamanders” [5]. Though they may not be as aesthetically pleasing, these salamanders were systematically created by different subgroups and properties of symmetry, mathematically producing the same form Escher was working with. Even further, these fractal salamanders are self-similar, which means they are made up of themselves, as subdivisions of these sets produce the same set. Using Escher’s work as a guide, mathematicians were able to emphasize concepts of group theory to a greater extent, while preserving the artistic nature of the various tilings. Although perhaps not the original intention, Escher’s artwork has presented numerous concepts in mathematics, showing his contributions as not only an artist, but as a mathematician as well.
Figure 3. A fractal salamander, along with a depiction of its self-similarity [5]
References:
[1] Haak, Sheila. “Transformation geometry and the artwork of MC Escher.” Mathematics Teacher 69.8 (1976): 647-652.
[2] Schattschneider, Doris. “The mathematical side of MC Escher.” Notices of the AMS 57.6 (2010): 706-718.
[3] Schattschneider, Doris. “The plane symmetry groups: their recognition and notation.” The American Mathematical Monthly 85.6 (1978): 439-450.
[4] Senechal, Marjorie. “The algebraic escher.” Structural Topology 1988 núm 15(1988).
[5] Gelbrich, Götz, and Katja Giesche. “Fractal escher salamanders and other animals.” The Mathematical Intelligencer 20.2 (1998): 31-35.
Why Tanning and Smoking Are Popular Even Though the Public Knows They Cause Cancer
Despite the increasing awareness that tanning and smoking can cause cancer, people still continue to do them. Tanning beds expose users to ultraviolet (UV) light, which can lead to cancer, but they are still very popular. The dangers of smoking are in many advertisements and newspapers. There is an increase on smoking restrictions, including restrictions on smoking in public places in the United States. However, the tobacco industry continues to thrive. It is important to understand why people continue to go to tanning salons and smoke despite warnings of side effects to find a more efficient way to promote a healthy lifestyle for cancer prevention.
Figure 1 – This is the pathway that UV light takes in the skin. The tumor-suppressor gene p53 is activated. This leads to a transcription of target genes including the pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) gene that increases the release of alpha-melanocyte-releasing hormone. The hormone then signals the melanocortin 1 receptor on the melanocyte, creating the tanning response.
(Source: Dermatology Today. Reproduced from The New York Journal of Medicine and originally from Barsh and Attardi)
The general public needs to be more aware of the dangers of tanning. Studies have shown that the majority of indoor tanners are motivated to tan for attractive skin, relaxation, and warmth (Mathys 1999). Some people believe that tanning beds are a way to get a “safe tan” in which people can take advantage of being in sunlight without being in danger of getting too little or too much sun (Koo 2010). However, according to Figure 1, tanning cannot happen without DNA damage (Koo 2010). Even if there is no sign of physical damage such as sunburn, there is still a higher risk of skin cancer because levels UV radiation needed to cause damage are lower than the levels needed to cause inflammation (Koo 2010). Doing indoor tanning is associated with a higher risk of the skin cancer melanoma and is especially risky for those under 35 (International Agency for Research 2006). In addition, indoor tanning has an addictive quality because UV light causes endorphin release (Robinson 2008). This may explain findings that even though from 1986 to 1996 the public became more aware of that tanning can cause skin cancer, there was an increase in the regular use of tanning booths (Warthan 2005). Tanning produces immediate results that bring happiness while getting skin cancer can take years or decades. Those who want to tan despite the evidence that tanning can cause skin cancer should look for alternatives such as spray tanning.
Smoking is a widely known cause of lung cancer, but it is still a serious problem. Young adults from ages 16 to 24, both smokers and non-smokers, participated in a focus group study that had a goal of studying why some young adults smoked despite cancer risks (Gough 2009). There are stickers on cigarette boxes that have health warnings, but they became so normalized that some young adults have become desensitized to those health warnings (Gough 2009). Smoking is an everyday occurrence in some places so health warnings don’t have any influence. In addition, there are so many studies that pinpoint many things such as diet coke and alcohol as causes of cancer that smoking seems tamer comparison (Gough 2009). The advertisements against smoking can actually cause people to smoke more because they instigate anxiety and stress (Gough 2009). They also don’t feel that smoking is an immediate health concern. They feel that they will get sick decades later, when they turn fifty (Gough 2009). The immediate benefits of relief from stress and anxiety and the benefits of being accepted into a society in which virtually everyone smokes are more important. There needs to be research into changing advertisements into something more influential and impactful, without making smokers want to go for another smoke. There needs to be a way to teach young adults that bad health from smoking doesn’t happen in the far future, but that it starts with the first cigarette.
Tanning and smoking may not lead to cancer for years or decades, but the risks of bad health begin from the first day. The general public knows about the risks, but the immediate results of having attractive skin, feeling great, and fitting in are more important for day to day life. Finding a way for people to feel the urgency of stopping tanning or smoking needs to be researched.
Works Cited
Mathys P, Moser M, Bressoud D, Ackermann-Liebrich U, Braun-Fahrländer C. Frequency, duration and motivation of sun-bed use in Switzerland. Epidemiology 1999: 10: S.117.
Robinson JK, Kim J, Rosenbaum S, Ortiz S. Indoor tanning knowledge, attitudes, and behavior among young adults from 1988–2007. Arch Dermatol 2008: 144: 484–488.
The International Agency for Research on Cancer on Cancer Working Group on Artificial Ultraviolet (UV). The association of use of sunbeds with cutaneous malignant melanoma and other skin cancers: A systematic review. International Journal of Cancer 2006: 120: 1116-1122.
Warthan MM, Uchida T, Wagner Jr RF. UV Light Tanning as a Type of Substance-Related Disorder. Arch Dermatol 2005: 141: 963-966.
Woo DK, Eide MJ. Tanning beds, skin cancer, and Vitamin D: an examination of the scientific evidence and public health implications. Dermatologic Therapy 2010: 23: 61-71.
The Role of Resilience in Airport Security
Public transportation is an efficient method of moving large numbers of people quickly and efficiently from one place to another. It is no surprise that terrorists often target trains and buses as many people are restricted to a small space with minimal security measures. In more advanced urban societies where public transportation is often the main method of transportation, attacks on this infrastructure could mean major losses on the economy. Since September 11, 2001, the government has paid major attention to the idea of “resilience”, the ability of an infrastructure to maintain functioning under a disturbance (Williams).
The concept of resilience comes from the realm of natural disasters. Terrorists are constantly adapting their tactics and ideas over time using new technologies to stay ahead. They are constantly shifting their targets from strong opponents and looking to capitalize on new weaknesses. However, the transportation infrastructure as well as the economies they are located in are adapting to new attacks as well. Terrorism risks are very different than risks caused by natural disasters or “traditional” risks such as auto accidents or cancer (Roots). The ability for terrorists to conceal and adapt their abilities and intentions means that it is impossible to accurately measure the number of active and viable plots that are underway. This “threat-shifting” phenomenon means that the government could spend lots of money and resources to reduce risk in only specific area to see it be shifted to another with minimal risk reduction (Mueller).
The evolution of aviation anti-terrorism tactics is an example of the constantly adapting transportation security measures being taken place. In the 1970’s, transportation security was focused on preventing weapons from entering aircraft. In 1998, more robust explosive detection technology was created for checked baggage and carry on items. After September 11, 2001, the Transportation Security Administration was created to develop the most advanced security technologies (Llinger).
The growing threat of terrorism makes monitoring air travel safety extremely difficult. With new technologies and new threats constantly emerging, the government can only put so much preventative measures in a certain area. Terrorism is a highly unpredictable form of attack and the development of “resilience” in existing infrastructure seems to be the best way in combating it (Szyliowicz).
Figure 1: Chart showing the idea of “resilience” in transportation security
Works Cited
Williams, Z. “Supply chain security: an overview and research agenda.” The International Journal
Journal of Logistics Management 19.2 (2008): 254-281.
Roots, R. “Terrorized into Absurdity: The Creation of the Transportation Security
Administration.” The independent review 7.4 (2003): 503-517.
John, Mueller S. “A risk and cost-benefit assessment of United States aviation security
measures.” Journal of transportation security 1.3 (2008): 143-159.
Llinger, E Ellinger E. “Firm size, web site content, and financial performance in the
transportation industry.” Industrial marketing management Journal 32.3 (2003): 177-185
Szyliowicz, J. “International Transportation Security.” The review of policy research 21.3
(2004): 351-368.
Lina Mohamed-Assignment 2
Lina Mohamed September 26th, 2016
MHC 20301-Writing Assignment #2
Professor Glen Kowach
Search for Natural Alternatives to Replace Pills-Step 1: Homeopathy
Before medicine, people relied on natural treatments to survive. It is true that people died of diseases because there were no vaccines and advanced medicinal treatments/procedures, but now that we have these advancements, it is not all better. People are still dying from diseases, overdoses, misdiagnoses, and so much more. If humans before us were able to look and find treatment naturally, we should certainly be able to do this more efficiently if we put our technology to good use. Modern technology would make it so much easier to search for alternative treatments, test their effectiveness and make the best use of these natural remedies.
Homeopathy is a system of medicine used to treat chronic illnesses that fail to respond to traditional treatments, but also to treat minor conditions like the cold and flu. Homeopathic remedies are natural substances that are usually plant, mineral, or animal based. This type of remedy is based upon the idea that “like cures like” ( Alternative Medicine, 271).
“Throughout its over 200-year-history, homeopathy has proven effective in treating diseases for diseases for which conventional medicine has little to offer/ However, due to its low cost, which threatens pharmaceutical profits, as well as its divergence from conventional medical theory, homeopathy has been continually attacked by the medical establishment” (Alternative Medicine, 271). Even though homeopathy has its critics, it can still give results. Homeopathy should not be our only source of treatments but it should be used when possible to reduce pill consumption which causes liver damage.
Natural alternatives like homeopathy are continuously growing in use by doctors and licensed health-care providers but it is not enough to replace pharmaceuticals and man-made alternatives. Organizations have even recognized homeopathy and other pure remedies as systems that should be integrated worldwide, along with conventional medicine, to provide adequate global healthcare in the 21st century. This is already more recognized in Europe than America and it is time for America to catch up. In parts of Europe, homeopathic remedies are required, along with other conventional remedies. It is time for the United States to wake up and understand what is better for our health and not the benefit of businesses.
References:
-Alternative Medicine: The Definitive Guide (2nd Edition)– June 6, 2002 Retrieved from Google Scholars:
-(Weeks, 2016). Harvard Study Has Good News for Homeopathic Medicine. Integrative Practitioner. Retrieved from:
-Desmon, Stephanie. (2013, n. pg.) Politicization of Health Care Preventing Real Changes to Out-Of-Control System, Researchers Suggest. John Hopkins Medicine. Retrieved from Google Scholar:
-Friedman, Michael. (2015, n. pg.) Substance Abuse and Misuse in Older Adults. Behavioral Health News. Retrieved from Google Scholar:
http://www.mhaofnyc.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Substance-Abuse-BHN-Winter15.pdf
-Tozzi, John. (2015, n. pg.) The FDA Might Finally Crack Down on Homeopathy. Bloomberg. Retrieved from:
http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-04-20/the-fda-might-finally-crack-down-on-homeopathy
Calcium Ions: the Unexpected Key in Cellular Communication
In my previous paper I was intrigued that a certain component kept showing up in the papers I was researching. Calcium ions showed up numerous times and I had no idea how they played such an important role in a complicated process as cell communication. It honestly never occurred to me that cell communication could be effected by a difference in electrical charge.
Calcium ions were even show to be possibly related with potassium activation (Meech 1972). Potassium conductance increased in the neuron once calcium salt was injected into the cell. Electrical charge and ions play an important role in neurons and the way they communicate. However, calcium ions are also heavily present in our immune system, as they are used to initiate the human T-cell line to produce interleukin (Imboden 1985). The immune system has dedicated areas where they store calcium ions so that it can regulate cell communication and the production of proteins such as interleukin.
Calcium ions play such an important role in cell communication because they act as a secondary messenger in multicellular organisms. They are even used in plants, such as their guard cells. They can change the guard cell’s turgor (McAinish 1997). It is even being used in nanomachine research. The nanomachines are “communicating” with cells through calcium ions and gap junctions (Nakano 2005). Gap junctions are made of connexins which are transmembrane proteins, and form into a channel that pass small molecules such as inorganic ions between neighboring cells, as seen in figure 1.
The tubes represent the connexins which transport the molecules that are represented by the circles.
Once the calcium ions pass through the gap junctions, they attach to a receiver by a selective receptor, which can then flow into the cell (Suda 2005). This alongside gap junctions are becoming the basis for a molecular communication system and can help pave the future for nanomachines in health and medicine.
Sources
Meech, R.w. “Intracellular Calcium Injection Causes Increased Potassium Conductance in Aplysia Nerve Cells.” Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Physiology 42.2 (1972): 493-99.
Imboden, J. B. “Transmembrane Signalling by the T Cell Antigen Receptor. Perturbation of the T3-antigen Receptor Complex Generates Inositol Phosphates and Releases Calcium Ions from Intracellular Stores.” Journal of Experimental Medicine 161.3 (1985): 446-56.
Mcainsh, Martin R., Colin Brownlee, and Alistair M. Hetherington. “Calcium Ions as Second Messengers in Guard Cell Signal Transduction.” Physiol Plant Physiologia Plantarum 100.1 (1997): 16-29.
Nakano, T., T. Suda, M. Moore, R. Egashira, A. Enomoto, and K. Arima. “Molecular Communication for Nanomachines Using Intercellular Calcium Signaling.” 5th IEEE Conference on Nanotechnology, 2005. (n.d.): n. pag.
Suda, Tatsuya, Michael Moore, Tadashi Nakano, Ryota Egashira, and Akihiro Enomoto. “Exploratory Research on Molecular Communication between Nanomachines.” GECCO ’05 (2005): n. pag.
The Cyberknife System: On Par with Increasing Cancer Patients’ Survival Rates When Compared to Other Treatment Techniques
Ariana Gopal
Three of the primary methods for killing off cancerous cells in a person’s body are chemotherapy, surgery, and various forms of radiation therapy. Chemotherapy targets all rapidly producing cells in a person’s body and is generally prescribed in the form of a drug; it is often used in cases where an individual’s cancer has spread (also known as metastasis). In contrast, surgery and radiation therapy are more specifically targeted toward cancerous lesions in a localized region of the body. Surgical procedures are invasive and are geared toward physically cutting out cancerous masses. Radiation therapy uses radiation waves to specifically target cancer cells. In comparison to chemotherapy, radiation therapy is localized and noninvasive, essentially making it less toxic to the body. In comparison to surgery, radiation therapy will not put patients in remission for extended periods of time. With advancements in radiosurgery, like the Cyberknife, radiation therapy is becoming more precise and offering patients the treatment they need for their cancer in fewer treatments.
The goal of this research was to explore the impact of Cyberknife treatment on patients with cancer outside of the nervous system, as well as to compare the effectiveness of radiosurgery versus other typical treatment methods. Two of the articles specifically focused on hepatocellular carcinoma, a type of cancer that effects the liver. One traced survival rates 1-3 years after patients received surgery; survival rates were 88.5%, 73.1%, and 69.2% for traditional surgery, whereas those for the Cyberknife were 72.7%, 66.7%, and 57.1% (Zhuang et al., 2013). This article indicated that traditional surgery prolonged the survival of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma over Cyberknife surgery, although these results were not considered significant (Zhuang et al., 2013). The article evaluating different treatments on hepatocellular carcinoma focused on external beam radiation therapy in comparison to chemoembolization and resection techniques. In contrast to the previous article, the median survival rate and 1-year survival rates were 8 months and 34.8% in the radiation group, and 4 months and 11.4% in the non-radiation group, indicative that radiation therapy had a better impact on improving the survival rates of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma over other treatment techniques (Zeng et al., 2005). In a study comparing Cyberknife radiosurgery to traditional surgery for a type of lung cancer, patients receiving Cyberknife had a 95% overall survival rate after 3 years, in comparison to 80% in the surgery group (Chang et al., 2015). A study exploring radiosurgery and traditional surgery indicated that both had an average 1-year survival rate of 60% for patients with brain tumors (O’Neill et al., 2003). Although both groups had similar survival rates, the chance of recurrence was significantly less for the radiosurgery group (O’Neill et al., 2003). Similar survival rates were also noted in a study comparing radiosurgery to more traditional radiation therapy, reporting 91% and 88% 6-year survival rates, respectively, for patients being treated for prostate cancer (Ricco et al., 2016).
As indicated by the studies above, there are clearly mixed results when comparing radiosurgery techniques like the Cyberknife system to other treatment methods, predominantly traditional surgery. One of the studies indicated that the system was worse than other techniques, two had very similar survival rates, and those that showed a higher survival rate for patients treated with the Cyberknife system did not report statistical significance. Overall, it appears that the Cyberknife system is on par with other techniques, surgery in particular, when it comes to treating various types of cancer. In the future, it could be helpful to specifically focus on the effects of the Cyberknife system on one specific type of cancer. Focusing this way can make it clearer whether or not the Cyberknife system is an effective way of treating a specific kind of cancer. Additionally, the cost-effect ratio for this system can also be explored in future research.
Figure 1 Shows a three-dimensional image created by the Cyberknife system with the different angles at which radiosurgical waves will be hitting the target location. This picture depicts the Cyberknife targeting the liver. (Protocol, n.d.)
References
Protocol for Cyberknife Treatment of Limited Liver Metastases. (n.d.).
Quality of Life Surveys from Head and Neck Cancer Survivors: The Need for a Standard
Swathi Mettela
MHC Science Forward
Professor Kowach
26 September 2016
Quality of Life Surveys from Head and Neck Cancer Survivors: The Need for a Standard
Head and neck cancers (HNC) currently make up 3% of all cancers in the United States. The American Cancer Society estimates over 60,000 new HNC cancer cases and over 500,000 HNC survivors in the U.S. this year. Studies are often conducted to evaluate the extent of physical and psychosocial survivorship issues in HNC survivors. As these issues are not always quantitatively measurable, quality of life surveys are completed by the survivor to establish a numerical value for their overall wellness. While this subjective surveying method has become necessary when determining someone’s quality of life, the results of these surveys are being misused to draw inaccurate conclusions about survivorship issues in HNC survivors.
In a 2001 study the health related quality of life was measured in HNC survivors three years removed from their last treatment. Three different quality of life surveys (SF-36 health survey, EORTC QLQ-C30 version 1.0, and EORTC QLQ-H&N35) were used to evaluate a survivor’s overall quality of life. SF-36 health survey consists of 8 divisions of health: “physical health, role limitations due to physical problems, bodily pain, general health, vitality , social functioning, role limitations due to emotional problems, mental health and perceived change of health during the last year.” EORTC QLQ-C30 version 1.0 evaluates the survivor’s quality of life using five functioning scales (physical functioning, role functioning, emotional functioning, cognitive functioning, and social functioning), three symptom scales (fatigue, nausea and vomiting, and pain), and a global health scale. EORTC QLQ-H&N35 is a tomr specific survey comprised of seven subscales: pain, swallowing, senses, speech, social eating, social contact, and sexuality. (Hammerlid)
Figure 1.Question 1 on SF-36 shows how survivors subjectively quantify their health
In 2004 similar research was conducted to examine the quality of life of HNC survivors. In this study, four subjective surveys (UWQOL, PSS-HN, FACT-G, and FACT-H&N) were used to determine someone’s overall quality of life. UWQOL evaluates a survivor’s quality of life within the time span of the last seven days. PSS-HN is completed by the physician and examines three aspects of life: Normalcy of Diet, Eating in Public, and Understandability of Speech. FACT-G and FACT-H&N both refer to quality of four aspects of life (physical well-being, social/family well-being, emotional well-being, and functional well-being) in the last seven days. (Campbell)
Although there are established surveys in academia and medicine to measure a survivor’s quality of life after HNC, having multiple standards is just as ineffective as having no standard.
Citations:
Bjordal, K., De Graeff, A., Fayers, P. M., Hammerlid, E., van Pottelsberghe, C., Curran, D., … &
Söderholm, A. L. (2000). A 12 country field study of the EORTC QLQ-C30 (version 3.0)
and the head and neck cancer specific module (EORTC QLQ-H&N35) in head and neck
patients. European Journal of Cancer, 36(14), 1796-1807.
Brazier, J. E., Harper, R., Jones, N. M., O’cathain, A., Thomas, K. J., Usherwood, T., &
Westlake, L. (1992). Validating the SF-36 health survey questionnaire: new outcome
measure for primary care. Bmj, 305(6846), 160-164.
Campbell, B. H., Spinelli, K., Marbella, A. M., Myers, K. B., Kuhn, J. C., & Layde, P. M.
(2004). Aspiration, weight loss, and quality of life in head and neck cancer survivors.
Archives of Otolaryngology–Head & Neck Surgery,130(9), 1100-1103.
Hammerlid, E., & Taft, C. (2001). Health-related quality of life in long-term head and neck
cancer survivors: a comparison with general population norms. British journal of cancer,
List, M. A., D’Antonio, L. L., Cella, D. F., Siston, A., Mumby, P., Haraf, D., & Vokes, E. (1996).
The performance status scale for head and neck cancer patients and the functional
assessment of cancer therapy‐head and neck scale: A study of utility and validity.
Ringash, J., Bezjak, A., O’sullivan, B., & Redelmeier, D. A. (2004). Interpreting differences in
quality of life: the FACT-H&N in laryngeal cancer patients. Quality of Life Research,
Rogers, S. N., Lowe, D., Brown, J. S., & Vaughan, E. D. (1999). The University of Washington
head and neck cancer measure as a predictor of outcome following primary surgery for
oral cancer. Head & neck, 21(5), 394-401.
E-cigarettes Part II: Further Analysis of Pros and Cons and Contradictory Information
A recent study published in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine conducted research on children in grades 6 through 12 to determine young people’s opinions about e-cigarettes in comparison to their opinions about traditional cigarettes. As the figure below shows, the study found that of the 49.2 percent of students who knew about e-cigarettes, a whopping 30.6 percent felt that e-cigarettes were less harmful than traditional cigarettes (B. K. Ambrose et al., 2014). Furthermore, only 2.9 percent of these children believed that e-cigarettes were more harmful that traditional cigarettes. Therefore, many children who are aware of what e-cigarettes are disproportionately believe that e-cigarettes are safer than traditional cigarettes, which may increase the likelihood that they would try them.
Harm perceptions in children grades 6-12 overall and by cigarette smoking status (measured in percent of total children in the study)
On the other hand, a study published in the Tobacco Control journal states that “Older brands were significantly more likely to claim that their products were healthier than conventional cigarettes than were newer brands (80.1% vs 59.1%). The top-5 brands were most likely to make that claim (100%)” (S. Zhu et al., 2014). This shows that as time passes, brands of e-cigarette liquids are becoming less likely to make uncertain and potentially inaccurate claims about the benefits of using e-cigarettes.
Furthermore, a study conducted by E. Kralikova et al. shows that “Among regular users of ECs, 60% of those who provided the data…reported that ECs enabled them to reduce their consumption of conventional cigarettes” (E. Kralikova et al., 2013). This information can be taken one of two ways: on one hand it means that many people lean on e-cigarettes as a presumably safer or healthier alternative even though they can be equally harmful, but on the other, e-cigarettes are proving successful at helping people quit (or at least reduce) smoking traditional cigarettes.
While an article previously used in Writing Assignment #1 stated that e-cigarettes produce far fewer harmful emissions such as VOCs, carbonyls, and glycols than traditional cigarettes, an article published in the International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health counters this claim. The study found that “The concentration of putative carcinogenic PAH in indoor air increased by 20% to 147 ng/m3, and aluminum showed a 2.4-fold increase” (W. Schober et al., 2014). Moreover, “The nicotine content of the liquids varied and was 1.2-fold higher than claimed by the manufacturer” (W. Schober et al., 2014). This study shows that not only do e-cigarettes liquids contain a plentiful amount of harmful compounds, but their nicotine contents are also inaccurately labeled due to lack of governmental regulation and knowledge. This can lead to greater chances of people becoming addicted to e-liquids, even thought they choose low or zero nicotine options.
While many e-liquids may be labeled with inaccurate nicotine contents, a study published by the Society for the Study of Addiction potentially contradicts this evidence. The study “analyzed 20 models of 10 of the most popular brands of refill liquids, using gas and liquid chromatography” and found that “The nicotine content in the bottles corresponded closely to the labels on the bottles…neither ethylene glycol nor diethylene glycol were detected” (J. Etter et al., 2013). Therefore, although some brands have inaccurately labeled nicotine contents, it is likely that the better and more popular brands are more accurate and honest in their labeling and chemical make up.
Works Cited
Ambrose BK, Rostron BL, Johnson SE, et al. Perceptions of the Relative Harm of Cigarettes and E-cigarettes Among U.S. Youth. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. Vol 47, p S53-S60. 2014.
Etter J, Zäther E, Svensson S. Analysis of refill liquids for electronic cigarettes. Society for the Study of Addiction. Vol 108, p 1671-1679. 2013.
Kralikova E, Novak J, West O, et al. Do e-Cigarettes Have the Potential to Compete With Conventional Cigarettes?: A Survey of Conventional Cigarette Smokers’ Experiences With e-Cigarettes. Chest Journal. Vol 144, p 1609-1614. 2013.
Schober W, Szendrei K, Matzen W, et al. Use of electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) impairs indoor air quality and increases FeNO levels of e-cigarette consumers. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health. Vol 217, p 628-637. 2014.
Zhu SH, Sun JY, Bonnevie E, et al. Four hundred and sixty brands of e-cigarettes and counting: implications for product regulation. Tobacco Control. Vol 23, p iii3-iii9. 2014.
