During WWII, the United States and Great Britain established the Bases-for-Destroyers Deal, a well-named trade of US warships for British military bases in the Caribbean. This deal marked the beginning of the decline of colonialism in Britain and the rise of America. The Bases Deal was made largely without consulting the Caribbean people. They did not know what to expect from the United States, but feared that they were swapping one imperialist power for another. Additionally, they recognized this short period as an opportunity to gain political inclusion and reform. Oddly enough, the activism of the Harlem nexus was essential in fighting for Caribbean reform. Furthermore during the Great Depression, blacks returning to the West Indies brought with them these sentiments and race consciousness, which continued to fuel social social agitation. In Harlem, the growing radicalism acted as a warning for President Roosevelt. He knew that he needed to handle the situation in the Caribbean sensitively, and he also sympathized with the Caribbean people. He sent Charles Taussig to gain an understanding of the Caribbean, and Taussig in return suggested that Roosevelt instruct all representatives to conform to the customs and practices of the Caribbean. This was vital in easing tensions in the Caribbean.

(EDIT: When reading Brown Girl, Brownstones I was an idiot and thought that they lived in Harlem. This did made me question why Selina would be allowed to go all the way to Prospect Park with Beryl, but I told myself kids might be allowed to do that in that time period. I realized in class that they actually lived in Brooklyn, but my response assumes they live in Harlem.)

The first two books of Brown Girl, Brownstones are a captivating representation of life in Harlem at this time. Selina is a girl who just wants to go to the movies, eat Hooton’s, go to the park, and avoid the wrath of her mother. I think her mother is well described as she walks through the park. In this sweltering summer, “Silla brought the theme of winter” walking through the park. Her strong-made body is juxtaposed with the women and their idleness. Silla is hardworking, strong-minded, and wrathful. On the other hand, Deighton, is misguided and undetermined. He is often switching between fields that he believes will make him money. Silla explains that he was practicing to be a mechanic, and now he is studying to be an accountant. However, he is ignorant to the fact that white men won’t hire him, even though he has been rejected from such jobs before. Deighton and Silla are also juxtaposed in the explanations they give of their childhood to Selina. Deighton describes the days he spent playing around with his friends, while Silla explains a life of tireless slave work in the fields. Selina feels respect and love for her mother when she explains this.

The most surprising aspect of this representation of Harlem was the rampant sexual conduct and how openly it was discussed. Silla knows that her husband’s trips to Fulton Street are to visit women and openly speaks with another women about it. Her response is that he should take care of his woman before heading out to the concubines. Suggie Skeete is one such woman who is very sexually active. The book goes into a lot of detail about her interspersed with quotes from Silla of judgmental remarks about Suggie. Despite this, there is one moment when Deighton is out on Fulton Street and Silla feels outside the circle of life in Harlem. She looks to Suggie’s window in subtle jealousy.

The second book mostly focuses on Selina’s coming-of-age. Beryl says Selina is still just a kid. Selina longs for the freedom she witnesses in the lovers at the park. She describes one time when her father beat her. Beryl’s father Percy is a strong, powerful man and openly speaks of Deighton’s foolishness in dealing with his new land.

Brown Girl, Brownstones is a novel that focuses on the experiences of Selina Boyce as she navigates her way into maturity in the Flatbush area of Brooklyn. As the title of the book would imply, Selina lives in a brownstone along with her older sister Ida, her mother Silla; who is an ardent supporter of the concept of the American dream and is determined and indeed has been determined to make that dream happened ever since she begged her mother to allow her to go to America to work and send remittences back home, and her father Deighton who doesn’t share his wife’s work ethic and puts a strain on their marriage with his inability to remain in one trade. Initially he is portrayed sympathetically and is shown to be working towards achieving gainful employment in the field of Accounting, this sympathy is quickly yanked away as it comes to light that he has been sleeping with an older woman.

The first two books outline the major conflict that will be present in the rest of the book. It’s obvious that there is major tension present in the Boyce household, the mother and father are shown to hold different ideologies and because of this Selina is forced into an awkward position between the two. Selina has a rather romantic perception of both the upper crust of American society (where she would like to one day find herself, no matter how impossible that may be) and Barbados from which her family is from. Silla has absolutely no desire to return to the West Indies as all she remembers is a life of backbreaking work. Deighton, however, after learning that he has inherited an amount of land there immediately starts planning out the house he’s going to build there. This seems like a very significant point on account of the common lens through which we see immigrants from the West Indies. We conceptualize them as being inherently hard working but as Deighton shows some of them can be lazy and shiftless just like the rest of us.

Moving on to the article “Capital of The Caribbean”, as author Jason Parker explains, Harlem during the period of Caribbean immigration was an incredibly important hotbed of political agitation for social change both domestically and abroad. Prior to World War II the community in Harlem was fragmented along ethnic lines. The Italian invasion of Ethiopia was the catalyst for a greater Pan-African movement. In a way it fomented a sense of solidarity between all those who were having their lives dictated for them by the imperial governments put in place by Europe, even though Italy didn’t stick around long enough to set up such a government. When America threatened to establish themselves in the area a la Great Britain members of the UNIA and other pro-black organizations began to agitate for their right to self-determination. Much of this pressure came from neighborhoods like Harlem and is partially responsible for Roosevelt’s softened attitude towards the Caribbean. Without Harlem’s influence who knows what the United States would have done in the West Indies.

After reading “Capital of the Caribbean,” I was pleased to discover that I was reasonably well-informed on some of the topics that were discussed. At the same time, I learned that the things I thought I knew were far too narrow in scope. Zooming out, I was able to see the much broader ramifications of these seemingly binary interactions. I am speaking mostly about the wartime efforts and exchanges of the United States and Britain. While I already was aware that the United States used trades of carriers for bases in order to maintain its neutral façade, I never paid much attention to, or learned about, how this change in power would affect the people who lived near where these bases were located. People were concerned about whether the infamous Jim Crow attitude would be inherited, and generally Caribbean people had no say in the fates of their countries. Eventually, however, as a result of Roosevelt’s limited ties with Harlem, the neighborhood which the essay proclaims to be the capital of the Caribbean, and as a result of various committees and diplomats, some Caribbean voices were heard, and policy decisions had their concerns in mind.

As in Blood Relations, I was remarkably unaware of how important Harlem was to not only New York, but to the entire world. These works helped to inform me otherwise. Harlem was truly a beacon of hope for people of African descent all around the world, and it was a hub for immigration and social change. Even more so, I wasn’t aware that Harlem played such a huge role in the advancement of Caribbean nations, and I didn’t know that so much intellectual activity in regards to social change was present in the Caribbean and was brought up to Harlem.

In the first two books of Brown Girl, Brownstones, the main character Selina is dealing with her identity as both an American, a Barbadian, and a young girl. This mix of identities is interesting, and her world-view is heavily shaped by this. On one hand, she desires strongly to reside with the rich whites who occupied the brownstone before her, but these thoughts are beaten down and discouraged once she realizes the impossibility of this happening––a result of her skin color. On the other hand, she romanticizes the idea of moving back to Barbados, even though she doesn’t fully understand the implications that such a transition would have for her and her family. As a young girl, however, her experience can surely be compared to those of any girl her age. She is starting to recognize the signs of maturity, and is dealing with the struggles, emotionally and physically, that come along with it. Ina, Selina’s sister, is the one who introduces her to some of these concepts, and is ultimately responsible for making Selina feel a bit like an outsider.

I think that “Brown Girl Brownstones” speaks a powerful message about life as a Caribbean immigrant in New York. It seems as if Selina and her family will never be able to get away from the shadow of the white families who used to live in their neighborhood as can be seen by Selina’s incessant day dreams of joining the white family who used to live in her house before her. Unlike the rest of her family, she doesn’t seem to have any close ties to her home country in Barbados and instead would rather trade in her current life for the luxury of an upperclass New Yorker family. This all seems kind of strange to me because I’m very proud of my heritage and could never imagine trading the life I have now for any other. I wasn’t even born in Peru but because of the way i was raised, I’ve always felt a strong connection to my heritage. Granted, the food is delicious and that goes a long way towards my love for my country, but either way, I like being different. I wouldn’t want to be like some of the other people who have no connection to their heritages so that’s why this whole idea of Selina shaking off her heritage to be like the rest of the “normal” Americans seems so strange to me. To be fair to Selina, its quite evident that she is still very innocent. Like when she was curiously interested about her older sister’s menstrual cramps. Another predominant theme presented in the novel is the race relations between the Caribbean immigrants and the hegemony of white Americans. Selena’s mother, Silla, is a housemaid for a wealthy jewish family and she has an interesting perspective on the race relationships. In her eyes, she sees that the hegemony that is currently in power will do whatever it takes to stay in power. Silla feels that her family and other black are being oppressed by this hegemony and that the only way for them to secure power of their own is through hard work. Her dream is actually for Selena to become a big time successful doctor in America. She feels that this is one of the best ways for Caribbeans, and blacks in general, to gain some power in American society. This whole race relationship is further exemplified when Deighton, Selena’s father, applies for a job as an accountant at a predominately white firm. Despite everything his friends and family tell him, Deighton invests months of work into studying accounting only to be rejected by the firm due to his race. It seems that he actually wanted to subject himself to racism. Everyone told him that it wasn’t a good idea but he was to stubborn to listen and ultimately failed. Its possible that he just wanted other people to pity him so he wouldn’t feel as guilty for some of the bad things that he’s done in his life. Overall, I found this section of reading intriguing and am actually curious to find out how the rest of the story will develop and whether or not Selena will develop the connection to her heritage that I myself hold so dearly.

This week we read the article “Capital of the Caribbean”: The African American-West Indian “Harlem Nexus” and the Transnational Drive for Black Freedom, 1940-1948 by Jason Parker. In the article, Parker argues that Harlem acts as the “capital” of the Caribbean because so much relating to the Caribbean is centered there. In the 1940’s there was a large Afro-Caribbean population that was coming from many of the Caribbean Islands. The situations in their home countries were not great since they were ruled by colonial powers. Upon moving to Harlem, Caribbean people made it a base of operations for political movements. There were political parties from other countries that were started in Harlem. Many Caribbean elections were affected greatly by the Caribbean immigrants in Harlem. The Caribbean immigrants also forced the US to acknowledge the Caribbean countries in the geopolitical sphere and forced the Allies of WWII to take action in Ethiopia after the Italian occupation. The political and cultural power stored in such a small area is incredible. Especially, how the entire world was affected by the situation in Harlem. Its power was so great that it had a larger effect on the Caribbean than any place in the Caribbean itself, this making Harlem the capital of the Caribbean.

This week we also began reading Brown Girl, Brownstones by Paule Marshall. I think that it is good to read a novel like this when studying Harlem. Though our approach has been fairly balanced between a macro and micro view, we tend to focus more on the macro. But looking at the micro helps immensely to develop our understanding of Afro-Caribbean immigrants to New York. In essence we are studying the lives of people and thus at points, we must take a closer look and see how those lives really were. This novel gives us a pretty good representation of this through the multiple characters it focuses on.

It is interesting to see views on race from the micro perspective. Selina is a young girl in the novel whose parents came from Barbados. She and her family live in a Brooklyn Brownstone. People of Dutch-English and Scotch-Irish Ancestry originally owned these houses but then the area became mainly Barbadian and West Indian. Salina believes that “She did not belong there. She was something vulgar in a holy place” (Marshall 3). And when she imagines herself living with the white family that once owned the house, she imagines that “she was no longer a dark girl alone” (Marshall 3). This indicates that Selina what appears to be an inferiority complex relating to the color of her skin. I imagine this occurred often during this time period as black people were often treated badly very openly. An example of this in the novel is when the black women are walking on the street and “sometimes the white children on their way to school laughed at their blackness and shouted ‘nigger’” (8). Though race relations between black and whites can be studied in the academic macro context, this novel provides a much deeper emotional connection and understanding.

Another big idea is that of movement and economic stability. One of the main reasons that immigrants left the Caribbean and came to New York was the will to find favorable economic conditions and live a comfortable life. This set up a system of back and forth movement with transnational networks as its central nervous system. The Deighton Boyce, Selina’s father, wants to find work that will gain him a good amount of money. He wants to use the money to return to Barbados and live comfortably on plot of land that he has inherited from his family. He does not view the move a permanent but as a means to an end. His wife, Silla, on the other hand sees this differently. She wants to stay in Brooklyn and use the money from the plot of land to pay for the house in Brooklyn. This story has helped me understand that there weren’t uniform motives for moving to and working in New York City.

The article that focused on the influential aspect of Harlem was quite eye opening because it occurred during an infamous time period of the WWII. We all, during some point in our life, learned about the significance of WWII, along with the atrocious events that occurred such as mass killings of individuals, along with the Holocaust. However, this article interestingly acknowledges that fact, and states how the larger events occurring in a macro sense, over-lapped the other crucial micro events such as the independence and reform movements of countries in the Caribbean. A reference that was quite intriguingly used by Jason Parker, was the overlapping of the betrayal of Brutus’ death over the other significant events that occurred in the play “Julius Caesar.” This allusion is perfect to describe the relations of the reform movements in the Caribbean, according to the the greater WWII occurring simultaneously.

Another interesting aspect was how reform organization such as the JPL along with other political organization formed in Harlem before they appeared in the Caribbean countries themselves. The irony behind this is that, these organizations were formed for these countries, for their betterment, however, the organization existed in Harlem first, thus emphasizing the great influential power of Harlem during this time. During this time, Harlem was truly stating to develop into a much more complex nexus of power. Gradually, more individuals wanted to implement these rights exposed to them in the U.S., to their own home countries. Many individuals especially the West Indians were becoming politically aware, and were pushing for reforms, especially when taking into consideration the destitute life of the individuals living in these poverty stricken Caribbean countries. In addition, the invasion of Ethiopia was interesting due to how it brought together all the blacks, to conform into union, and proclaim the betterment of their race. How Ethiopia, once being the stronghold of the African nation, known for its superior defensive abilities, was prided by all black individuals in a nebulous manner, and how it affected them after its invasion is quite extraordinary, taking into consideration their conflicting views beforehand.

Along with giving an historical time line of the immigration of Caribbean individuals in Harlem, “Brown Girl Brownstones” gave a first hand view of the immigrant’s experience. A significant motif in the novel was the use of Bajan throughout many instances in the book. A very interesting point in the book was how it was actually looked down upon to resemble a native from a foreign nation, such as Bajans from Barbados. Many of the immigrants actually being called Bajan as an insult, because they did not want to be connected to the hell-hole they left in the first place (Silla)…. However, others such as Deighton had a completely opposing view towards their home country. Deighton actually viewed it as a heavenly paradise, that he was longing to return to, while his wife on the other hand, wanted NOT to assimilate, but become an American, having no connection to Barbados at all. This brings about the question of how their past reinforced their beliefs, especially for Silla, who spent her childhood in pure misery, doing slave work non-stop, along with physical punishments such as being whipped. While Deighton spent most of his time playing with the “boys” his various games, reminding him of his great youthful years, which he remembers while resenting his current life. What is genuinely interesting is how both of these individuals are married, from the same country, have similar aspects in culture and race, but have such opposing and contending views towards being what they are…Bajan.

The content of the readings for this week, along with our class discussion on Tuesday, have all caught my attention. It is awesome to see how Caribbean immigrants living in New York City (mainly in Harlem) and elsewhere within the United States played a huge role in the liberation of their home countries from foreign oppression. Today, when we think about the Caribbean we only think about the stereotypes associated with the area. All we can picture is sunny beaches and resorts full of tourists that go to these places to fool around. However, we can never seem to associate these places with suffering, poverty and other types of social struggles. Most, if not all islands of the Caribbean were European colonies at some point and natives had to fight for their freedom from foreign oppression just like the United States did with Great Britain. Immigrants residing in Harlem provided the islanders with financial, diplomatic and moral support so that they could ultimately be successful at liberating their countries from foreign rule. In “Capital of the Caribbean,” by Jason Parker, we learn that Harlem was the epicenter of the global black movement for freedom. During the early half of the twentieth century, Harlem faced many social changes due to the immigration of people from the Caribbean and African Americans from the South. This changed people’s view of the black community within the nation. There were no longer small, weak communities of black people that were usually taken advantage of. Now, there was a strong community that advanced the general cause for black freedom. West Indian immigrants often advocated for black unity and freedom. Immigrants like Marcus Garvey, promulgated black consciousness and helped set the political agenda for black America.

African Americans throughout the Western Hemisphere sustained a newly impassioned interest in the global dimensions of racial and colonial oppression. The Caribbean presence in New York was very important because they led political currents on the revolutionary socialist left, supporting movements within their home countries. The global black movement for freedom became even stronger and effervescent with the Italian-Ethiopian conflict. Ethiopia was and still is a symbol of black unity, power and freedom. Throughout the history of the world it has been the only country in Africa without being successfully colonized by a European power. The temporary Italian occupation of Ethiopia united black people in advocating for freedom and liberation. Right after the invasion, the United States established a deal with England that gave the U.S. control over several naval bases located on islands within the Caribbean. This deal was necessary so that the United States could continue to appear as neutral in the war. In order to prevent problems with the people residing in the islands where the naval bases were located, President Roosevelt sent Charles Taussig, with the support of White, the leader of the NAACP, to get a general feel of the area. In his trip, Taussig conversed with many important Caribbean people who advised him about the different issues and situations in the area. When he returned to the United States, Taussig urged President Roosevelt to take action that would improve the relationship between Americans and people from the Caribbean. Taussig literally told Roosevelt that the U.S. had to acknowledge its racial faults, redress them in its island presence and establish a good relationship with the people in the area. Thus in 1941, Roosevelt proposed the creation of an Anglo-American Caribbean Commission. The commission convened in 1942 to study problems like food shortages and poverty. Although this commission’s efforts at facilitating large scale reform failed, the commission at least succeeded in bettering public relations between blacks and whites to a certain extent.

A phrase from this article that caught my attention was when Parker says that Black New York acted as both a cashbox and a soapbox for those fighting for the independence of the West Indies. The cooperation between figures such as Walter White, W.A. Domingo and Norman Manley was crucial to larger efforts at political reform. In other words, without people like the latter mentioned, the fight for freedom would have taken longer. This global black movement of freedom has been successful to a certain extent in areas all around the globe. People like Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., Nelson Mandela, and Desmond Tutu have used the ideals associated with the movement to fight for freedom and liberation. However, something that I want to know more about with regards to this issue is the role of the black church in fighting for freedom. What role did it have? I would like to know specific religious leaders that played fundamental roles in this struggle.

The first two books of Brown Girl, Brownstones, written by Paule Marshall, were very interesting. By having read only 53 pages of Marshall’s piece, I was able to notice the suffering that many immigrant families go through. In these two books, Marshall introduces a couple of characters some from Barbados and others from the United States living in Brownstone houses located in a Bajan community within Brooklyn. The book centers around a young girl named Selina Boyce. She has an older sister named Ina, a dad, Deighton, and a mother, Silla. The first few pages of the book describe the house in which the Boyce family resides. What makes Selina’s description interesting is that we get a “first hand experience” of how a Brooklyn neighborhood looked like to a young child coming from an immigrant family. Right from the beginning, the reader gets the sense that the Boyce family, like any other family has many issues and problems that do not only have to do with being immigrants residing in a country but also issues related to growing up and identity, as well as race and social status. Silla does not seem to appreciate her daughters. Life has not treated her well. As a little kid she had to work in plantations and was mistreated by whites. Consequently she has huge resentments with society as a whole. The only one she seems to love is her son, who died at a very young age from heart problems (she blames her husband for the son’s death). Selina suffers because of racial tensions and also because she has not gotten her first period or developed a woman’s body yet while her best friend, Beryl and Ina have. Deighton does not know how be a good head of family. Instead of losing his pride and getting a job that may not be what he wants but would bring food to the table, he spends his time chasing dreams that he believes will take his family out of their economic situation but in the end always abandons them or is unsuccessful. He received land from his sister, but is very stubborn and does not want to sell it to get money to pay the bills. His wife is the one that has to take care of everything. To make things worse, he has a mistress whom he openly fools around with. It is as if he was a rebellious teenager more so than the head of a household. The wife, despite her many resentments, seems to be the only one in the family to keep reality in check.

In the first two books, Marshall also introduces two women, a sick elderly woman by the name Mary and her daughter, Maritze. The relationship between both of them is not good because Ms. Mary wishes to remain in the growing Bajan community in Brooklyn where she has lived her whole life, while her daughter wants to move out. The mother always judges her daughter because the daughter is unmarried and is not what Ms. Mary expects a daughter should be. Marshall also introduces Suggie, an immigrant woman who has it hard and resorts to sleeping with men on the weekends to supposedly take her mind away from all the tensions associated with her sufferings.

Through her book Marshall depicts the issues immigrants have when moving to the United States. Many times these individuals do not only have sufferings associated with living in an unknown place where they do not have support from anyone but also face issues due to their own mistakes. Moving to the U.S. and chasing after the American dream is the stereotype portrayed by many authors and movie directors in their works. However, in this book, Marshall is trying to show how many times the struggles associated with the American Dream become mixed with personal problems people have that make moving up the social ladder very hard. Thus far we see that the characters introduced here turn to drinking, denial of reality, sex, and cheating on the spouse to temporarily relieve themselves from tensions. However, these acts and states of mind are serving more as strains in their path to success. Silla and Deighton’s relationship is falling apart because of Deighton’s lack of cooperation in the household as the father and husband and Silla’s inability to work with people.

After reading Book 2, I get the sense that Selina has trouble finding her identity because of all the pressure she experiences from different people in her environment. Her mother never appreciates her, often making it explicitly clear that she prefers the deceased brother to her. Her sister and best friend serve as reminders that she has not entered puberty yet and despite the fact that she admires her father, she probably does not accept the fact that he does not do anything to improve the family’s circumstances. Society as a whole does not have her in a high standard because of her skin color and origins. Thus she must feel left out and secluded from different social circles.

“Capital of the Caribbean” was an excellent transition from Blood Relations. It explored the post-renessaince period and viewed Harlem as the center for all this reform and even power. I found the article to be interesting because I had never thought of all the issues going on in the Caribbean during the time of the World War. I found it almost poetic that this was the time when West Indians and African Americans got together for a common cause, transnationalism. It paralleled the countries at the time getting together for the War. It was a time where a lot of communities came together and pushed for independence, as well as representation in the government. This article showed the connection between the civil movements in the United States, which matched those of the Caribbean and I was surprised that I hadn’t learned of this history before.

Brown Girl, Brownstones was much easier, and entertaining read than Blood Relations, in my opinion. I love the innocence of Selina, matched by the complexity of each of her family members. I think Paule Marshall does a great job of capturing the time and giving the reader a feel for the environment. She also conveys the struggles that both women and African Americans had to go through. It talks about the different jobs such as “Big Momma” had and the various jobs Deighton attempted. The discovery of the land Deighton received shows how people still had an attachment to their home countries. Silla wants the money for the land, but Deighton has a dream to go back and live off the land. It’s a difficult conflict, because it shows one person who wants to leave the past behind, while someone else is still fighting for the homeland. I think I can relate to this because in my family, my mother chose to leave everything behind, whereas my father is more involved with the country he was raised in. The author does capture the struggles of immigrant families really well. Selina has a more romanticized view of Bimshire, but she doesn’t understand how much worse it was for her parents there. I think her mother and father are very similar to any immigrant family, where they leave everything and work hard so their children can have a better life. I think it made Silla a much tougher person, and migrating has that affect on people.
One thing that I enjoyed a lot was reading about these places nearby such as Fulton Street, De Kalb and Prospect Park. I think it’s difficult imagining them in the time period of the book, versus what they are today, and it makes it very interesting.

I have heard of Britain and other European countries pulling out of some of their colonies during World War II, but strangely, I had very little perception of what this meant. I have not thought about the transition of powers and the people involved, both of the colonizers and the colonized. The Europeans present would not have just given up their power and probably would have been unused and unadapted to the typical European life to be expected to return.  They still owned the majority of the land, regardless if the home government withdrew, right? Anyway, these questions are too finely pointed for this article- Capital of the Caribbean, which is ironic because the article frequently states that it focuses on an overlooked micro aspect of a macro subject – not micro enough. It describes the larger political situation of the Caribbean during World War I and discusses key figures, all with Harlem acting as the nexus/ capital of the Caribbean. Before World War II, during the Depression, there were many labor riots and radical/reform groups in the Caribbean and the larger black population in America because times were rough and these groups were already just scrapping by. Then, Italy invaded Ethiopia- the one notoriously uncolonized, independent African state, a symbol of black pride; this event rallied blacks together, protesting that other countries should defend Ethiopia’s freedom, which lead to the Allied powers intervening. As previously mentioned, during World War II, European countries had to leave some of their colonies because they were too involved in the war to worry about over sea territories. President Franklin D. Roosevelt wanted strategic military bases in the Caribbean, but he did not want to oppose the inhabitants of the island and he did not want to anger the growing Caribbean population of America, particularly in Harlem. So he sent Taussig, a white man with good relations with the black community, and Walter White, member of the NAACP, to discuss a relationship between America and the Caribbean among the common Caribbean people. Through the understanding of this mission, the Anglo-American Caribbean Commission was born, which was like an advising committee of Afro-Caribbean people. Harlem was so deeply connected that campaigns there that it determined a representative of the AACC. However, some people still viewed American politicians as another imperialist power.

Brown Girl, Brownstones is about a second generation Barbados girl, named Selina, her family (mother- Silla, father- Deighton, Ina- sister), and various neighbors in Brooklyn. First chapter, the author, a woman of with a similar background story, analyzes the feeling of being an outsider within a home built for distinguished white families, feeling their ghosts roam about her. Her description of the homes are of stark, aloof, twisted agitators that effect her life and family, while being distant and unconcerned. She highlights the burning contrasts of the white walls to her family’s dark skin, like the contrast between the former inhabitant of the house and her life. Meanwhile, the remaining white residents of the neighbor are Miss Mary and her daughter who are poor, rejects and they fight between moving on and living in the past with the ghosts of the illustrious past inhabitants. Other white neighbors are described as locked up in their homes, as to refuse the change within their neighborhood. The sun and heat are also prevalent motifs, which represent the climate and features of the Caribbean, while acting as almost as a symbol for oppression and struggle. One major conflict is land- Deighton has a romanticized view of his past in the Caribbean and does not want to sell the land he inherited on the island, while his wife does not glorify her past and homeland, and wants to settle and buy a house in New York. Further martial conflicts results from their dead baby boy that the mother cannot get over. She views Selina as the reason why her son died and resents her for it, while Selina tries to pardon her love. Overall, Selina is caught in the middle, of an awkward phase and her parents’ relationship. Her father has a lover and he has dreams of working a higher wage “white” job that he will probably never receive, and her mother has a major chip on a shoulder against the world. In general, sex is a major component of this book. Snuggie uses sex as empowerment and comfort, before she has to work and be alone for a weak. Sex effects everyone, as everyone can heard when Snuggie has it, and even the children are growing up and coming to terms with their sexual identities. This is apparent as Selina and Beryl discuss being a woman in terms of getting your period and growing shapely. Ina, the prettier sibling who has gotten her period and the beloved child, was supposedly going outside to flirt with boys. Breasts seem to be noteworthy to Selina because it represents womanhood. Again, this class reads a book with a heavily keen interest in women within Caribbean communities.

“Capital of the Caribbean” by Jason Parker demonstrates how Harlem became the new capital for African Americans. WWII was one of the main causes for the migration of African Americans to Harlem, however, there was another reason before WWII. Ethiopia has always been a symbol of unity between U.S. African Americans and West Indians. However, when Italy invaded Ethiopia this sparked the rise for equal rights and freedom. After the invasion, the U.S took part in the Destroyers for Bases Agreement. This agreement states that the U.S destroyers will be given to the Royal Navy in exchange for Caribbean naval bases. In doing this, the U.S.had a neutral standpoint in the war. After the possession of the Caribbean naval bases, FDR sent Charles Taussig to the Caribbean islands to learn about the people residing there. Taussig was chosen because he had support from Walter White who led the NAACP. Taussig gave FDR feedback on the situation of the people living on the islands. In return FDR imposed various policies to improve the Caribbean standard of living.

Brown Girl, Brownstones begins by first introducing the brownstones. The brownstones were buildings built by Dutch-English and Scotch-Irish. But eventually, the West Indians started to take over. The brownstones are inhabited by mostly Barbadians and this is where the Boyce family is introduced. Selina Boyce, a ten year old child, fantasizes about welcoming the past white family that has previously lived there. In her imagination she feels like she fuses with the white family and becomes part of them. However, she is quickly reminded that this is an imagination when she sees herself in mirror. Selina has these imaginations because she wants to feel connected with society. Ina Boyce, Selina’s sister is also introduced. Ina is described as having pains because of her coming of age. The Boyce family also had a son that died right before Selina came into this world and Selina believes that she took his place in the world. Deighton Boyce, Selina’s father is introduced as someone who dreams about wealth but not working for it. For example, he claims that he got land from his sister that passed away and he was going to move back to Barbados to create, “A house to end all house.” In reality he doesn’t have that much money. Finally Silla Boyce is introduced as a person who constantly works and is never cheerful. “Her lips, set in a permanent protest against life, implied that there was no time for gaiety.” Even though immigrants move to America they are still constantly reminded of their homeland. For example, Suggie Skeete, Selina’s tenant, prepares a meal of okra and water and in doing so she is reminded of her home in Barbados in which there are yam patches, mango trees and lizards. There is also a contrast in the wide open land to crowded rooms. More tenants are introduced and they are Miss Mary and Maritze, Miss Mary’s daughter. Miss Mary is an elderly woman that is about to die and Maritze is constantly annoyed about her mother. They are the only white people living in the brownstones.  Going back to Deighton and Sillia Boyce, their relationship is damaged. Deighton doesn’t save money for the house, instead he spends it on clothes. His excuse is the land he has in Barbados however, he doesn’t even want to sell the land for money. Silla is the one who does all the work in the house. Deighton just thinks of ways to make money but never does anything. Deighton also goes out and plays with other women. Later on in the novel, Silla questions Selina about the meeting she had with her father. Silla tells Selina about The Third Class and her hardships when she was Selina’s age.

As months passed, the subject of all discussions was land. Selina asked her mother if she could go to prospect park with Beryl, her best friend. Her mother told her that she could go and that she is more of a woman than Ina. Selina then walks around town and finds out the whole town is speaking about her dad and his land. Selina meets up with Beryl and they make their way to prospect park. On the way to the park Selina describes how she feels free. “Life suddenly was nothing but this change and return.” When they get to the park, Beryl tells Selina how she is bleeding from down there just like Ina. Selina can’t comprehend the idea of becoming a woman because she is still a child. Deep down inside Selina wants to bleed but in reality it is not her time yet. Eventually Selina realizes that everyone is connected like parts of a mosaic. Selina finally feels accepted into the society in which she lives in.

I really enjoyed reading through the article on the “Capital of the Caribbean” because it helped place Harlem’s role in the West Indies on a national scale. Blood Relations does a good job in showing more local connections between Harlem and the West Indies. Taking a close look into West Indian neighborhoods and the social dynamics between families there effectively illustrated the power that political agitators had in their community, but it also left plenty to be desired in terms of how they had an effect on the national level. Before reading this article, I had never heard of the “Bases for Destroyers” agreement. Aside from its ingenious military implications (trading old destroyers for military bases anywhere sounds like a good deal any day), it really helped continue America’s position on limiting overseas interference in the Western Hemisphere. Due to this American position, I definitely sympathized with West Indians who were nervous about an American force in the Caribbean. Especially considering what happened in the Philippines less than 50 years prior, I think the West Indians had every right to be a little suspicious. Thankfully, Roosevelt, Taussig and their esteemed friend Walter White, were able to quell any fears. By involving someone who had strong ties with an organization that helped native blacks and West Indian peoples, and being sensitive towards normal customs, the USA showed they were there to help when they finally arrived.

Moving over a thousand miles North in Brown Girl, Brownstones, we are taken to a small, mostly West Indian neighborhood in Brooklyn, New York. After a couple weeks of focusing on Harlem and the West Indian communities flourishing there, we now move over to a different borough with many of the same types of communities flourishing. Though Brown Girl, Brownstones is fiction, it still provides a very realistic view into life the life as a second generation West Indian immigrant since Marshall herself was a second-generation immigrant who was born in Brooklyn in the 1940s.

The first book of the novel “A Long Day and a Long Night” introduces many of Selina Boyce’s family and neighbors. Many of the people introduced seem to provide a different perspective into the life of a West Indian immigrant. Deighton Boyce, Selina’s father, is first introduced as a hard worker, at least to me. We meet him while he is reading accounting letters and studying finances with hopes to one-day make a living working as an accountant. Later on in Book 1, Deighton is revealed to be a much different person. He has tried to succeed in many different occupations, but tires of each and moves onto a new one every so often. His sleeping during the day isn’t because he works all night, as I had originally thought; it is actually because he spends his nights with a woman other than his wife. His wife, Silla Boyce, is his complete opposite. She rarely cracks a smile and is entirely focused on work and eventually buying her house and rooting her family and herself in Brooklyn. I feel like she is an extreme depiction of many West Indian immigrants who wanted to do exactly the same. A neighbor that is introduced is Miss Thompson. Miss Thompson works all day and all night, starting at nine at night working as a cleaning woman in an office building and continuing on into the next day when she holds down a shift at the beauty parlor. Miss Thompson is depicted as beaten; she is said to look gaunt and she has a large unhealed, and presumably untreated, ulcer on the instep of her foot. Here is a picture of one of the many West Indian women who worked ridiculous shifts doing whatever they can to make some sort of income.

Book 2, “Pastorale,” is a lot shorter and not as encompassing as Book 1. In fact, Book 2 focuses only on Selina and her friend Beryl. On this particular day, Selina has an interaction with Beryl’s family that isn’t too pleasant. Beryl’s father, Percy Channelor, talks with Selina about her father. Percy seems to look down on Deighton and his dream to work for the “white man.” He also seems very concerned with Deighton’s newly inherited land. I sort of think he may be jealous, since it isn’t everyday someone is blessed with two acres of land that they can use for whatever they want. Further into Book 2, we face some topics about womanhood. Beryl is beginning to go through puberty and is sharing all of her new experiences with Selina. This small scene feels out of place, especially after reading through Book 1. Book 1 is filled with many woman who are well past the age of puberty and are also well past the age of innocence. I’m not sure if this juxtaposition was done on purpose or not, but this scene definitely gives off a different vibe than most of the female experiences described in Book 1.

The history of the “Caribbean Nexus” just goes to show that there are so many things in history that affect other events in many areas around the world. Harlem, being thousands of miles away, was essential for Caribbean self-determination. Harlem did not only influence intellectuals in islands like Jamaica, they also sent funds for political campaigns. Only by looking deep into history can connections like these be made. This desire to improve the conditions in their homeland was used by the U.S. to improve relations with the Caribbean, especially during the Second World War. This war also affected the Caribbean community back in New York City.

The book Brown Girl, Brownstones by Paule Marshall gives a unique insight to the life of a girl growing up in Brooklyn during the Great Depression. This book, while having many interesting storylines, tells much about the Caribbean people that settled in Brooklyn neighborhoods that used to be occupied by European immigrants. Buying their homes seems to be the most important thing that they could do to ensure a future in America. Getting a job that was not domestic work was also another major step forward. Living during the Great Depression was also adding to the struggles of this community.

Selina Boyce is a girl that is looking to identify herself, and the differing views of her parents make it harder to find an answer. Being lucky enough to have land back in Barbados, although its a small piece, shows the two different views that the Barbadian immigrants had about a better future. Silla Boyce, Selina’s mother, spent all her life working hard and sought opportunities for a future in America. She wanted to sell that land and use that money to buy the house and put down roots in America. Deighton Boyce, Selina’s father, saw the land as an opportunity to go back to Barbados and live a pleasant, luxurious life there. They each have these different views on what to do with the land because they both had differing views on their homeland. Silla saw it as a place where, even at Selina’s age, she worked day and night with no sight of any progress. Deighton remembers it as a place where he enjoyed his youth. Selina is leaning towards going to Barbados; her father made it look like the dreamland, and she has never been there before. I can relate to that dream, when I was 12, I would have liked to move to Ecuador. My first visit to Ecuador was one full of fun experiences. However, as I grew older, and had more visits to Ecuador, I understood that it was not an easy place to live in, especially in the agricultural area where my family was from. Her father also seems to be a man that just dreams, and the Second World War may change Selina’s choice on which parent’s dream to partake in.

Adrian Horczak

People of New York

Professor Jennifer Lutton

February 25, 2015

Capital of the Caribbean and Brown Girl Brownstones

Capital of the Caribbean, written by Jason Parker, explains how the people of Harlem supported the movement for independences of colonies in the Caribbean. This information is often neglected since the Renaissance in Harlem is often stressed more than this event.

This program began because the British traded their outposts in the West Indies with battleships from the United States of America. This signified that the United States would be exerting control over the area. The Caribbean people found this as an opportunity to lessen foreign countries’ control over them. In addition, since the US did not know much about what was going on there, so it did encourage a gradual transformation of the West Indies into independent states. Therefore it formed the Anglo-American Caribbean Commission (AACC), but without any representation from the Caribbean. Nonetheless, it was able to improve the region’s economy and the residents’ standard of living. The commission also pressured the British government into granting universal suffrage to Jamaica. Once this occurred other nations in the Caribbean believed the same fate was possible for them.

Harlem, along with black communities in other large cities, was a major source of money and attention for West Indian independence. Harlem brought awareness of the Caribbean’s cause of gaining independence to white Americans, such as Taussig and White. Assistance from Americans was crucial to end white imperial rule in the Caribbean.

The main characters in Brown Girl, Brownstones, written by Paule Marshall, are the members of the Barbadian Boyce family: Selina, Ina, the father, and Silla. The book describes their struggle living in poverty in Brooklyn. They had to wear old, unwanted clothes Jews had given them. Moreover, they had to save every penny they made to save up money for land, so that they had a permanent place to stay. Like many West Indian people, sisters Selina and Ina and their mother, Silla, wished to live in a Brownstone, which used to be owned by white Americans, but now were being sold to mainly black owners.

Selina’s father gets a letter that reveals to him that since his sister died, her plot of land, in the West Indies is now his. When he tells Silla about this, she requests that he sell the lot he owns so that they can pay for a down payment on a brownstone home. However, her husband does not plan to sell it. Thus, the family will not be able to live in their ideal home.

Selina wants to spend time with boys in candy stores. Nevertheless, their mother fears that she may become a prostitute in the future if she continues these practices. She told Selina that at her age she was working hard from dawn to dusk in the West Indies, the place Selina’s father owns land. This is also one of the reasons Silla wants to sell that land to buy a Brownstone in New York City.

By reading Capital of the Caribbean I realized how important Harlem was in the process of independence for nations in the West Indies.

I believe everyone in Brown Girl, Brownstones is stubborn since Silla insists on buying a Brownstone, while her husband insists on keeping the land he has instead of selling it. Rather than disagreeing with one another, they should communicate more often with one another to find a compromise. In addition, the Boyce family should focus on working hard in New York City to make a good living with or without land. Eventually, all their hard work will make them enough money to buy a house in New York.

“Capital of the Caribbean”

In “Capital of the Caribbean,” Jason Parker discusses the relatively little known Caribbean struggle for independence just before and during World War II. He also discusses Harlem’s role in this Caribbean struggle for independence. According to the essay, Harlem was a “spiritual” center for black cultural and political developments. However, many history textbooks focus on larger scale issues. In light of this, a “transnational turn” has sought to remedy this situation and provide a new view of relations in Harlem. Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia set into motion much of the black’s political agenda (which was radical). The majority of these new radical voices were of Caribbean descent, and almost all of them spoke out against colonialism.

The presence of so many West Indians made Harlem a sort-of battleground for issues in the West Indies. This was especially true of the 1930s unrest in Jamaica. Much of the call for reform of the colonial system in Jamaica (as well as the rest of the West Indies) originated from New York City, especially Harlem. The Havana Declaration signaled the weakening of British colonial rule in the West Indies and prompted many to act because many feared that a bunch of American powers would just take over colonial rule and keep the status quo. This weakening was further signaled in the Bases-for-Destroyers Deal in which the British traded Atlantic base sites for American destroyers.

The U.S. government sent Charles Taussig to learn more about the newly leased areas in the West Indies. Taussig met with many black West Indian leaders and was even endorsed by Walter White, leader of the NAACP. His travels prompted the government to become more sensitive to local customs and eventually adopt an anti-colonial stance. The Anglo-American Caribbean Commission (AACC) was formed with the U.K. to improve the economy of the region as well as standard of living. However, racial solidarity for independence had its limits as demonstrated by disagreements within the AACC itself and the arrest of Wilfred Domingo.

When the British government proclaimed that Jamaica would receive a new constitution the following year, there was a battle between Norman Manley’s People’s National Party (PNP) and Alexander Bustamante’s Jamaican Labour Party (JLP) for leadership of the new country. Harlem played a crucial role in funding and lobbying for Manley’s PNP; however, the JPL crushed the PNP in the elections. Despite this, ties between Harlem and the West Indies were (by no means) damaged, and many continued to support Manley and his ideas.

In the first paragraph, I fully agree with the author when he says, “Powerful moments…overshadow other vital—albeit less quotable—features” (98). It is a fact of life that we tend to remember the more memorable moments of just about anything. Whether it is a book, a play, the news, or even just walking down the street, we tend to remember the “big things” that happened rather than the smaller, more routine events that may play a huge role in whatever it is that is happening. Even in the recounting of history, this occurs.

Take the Bases-for-Destroyers Agreement for instance. History textbooks either (1) gloss over it briefly or (2) do not mention it at all. To be honest, I do not even recall reading about this in any history course I have taken (AP courses included). However, considering this essay, it appears that this deal had a huge role on the people of the Caribbean in terms of their movements for independence. It is ironic that such an important occurrence was overshadowed by other aspects of the War.

I found the description of Jamaican Labour Party leader Alexander Bustamante quite amusing. Apparently, he had been giving “colonial officials fits since 1938.” He was heard “swearing fealty to the crown in one speech [and] calling for the white man’s blood in the next.” He was (to say the least) “equal parts threatening and baffling” and did not have a clear ideology. To top it all off, he was eventually detained as “a threat to public security” (109-110).

However, I will be honest here. I was not a huge fan of this essay in general. It was not necessarily the topic of this article, rather than the way it was written. Some parts felt too wordy for me to grasp any meaning. I found myself rereading parts just because I could not understand what the author was trying to say. The topic was interesting; however, the writing was not as good as I expected it to be.

Brown Girl, Brownstones (Books 1-2)

In the first two books of Brown Girl, Brownstones, we are introduced to Selina, a young and frail yet defiant girl who longs to (re-)experience the past. She lives with her family in a brownstone on Chauncey Street in Brooklyn. Her older sister, Ina, is (by comparison) more graceful, as she was spared from the “awkwardness” of adolescence. Due to this, Selina seems to be jealous of her sister’s situation. We learn that they had a baby brother who died in infancy due to a “bad heart.” Selina and Ina’s father, Deighton, is introduced as a laid-back person. He is studying to become an accountant so that he could make money and bring his family back to their home country of Barbados. He tells Selina of some land that his dead sister had left him. He aims to build and own a house on that plot “just like the white people own” (9).

Deighton’s relationship with his wife, Silla, is unstable. He longs to rekindle their relationship; however, her criticizing personality prevents this. She doubts him when he gives her the news of the land. As she talks to the (very) pregnant Vergie Farnum about this, she insinuates that she misses her dead baby son very much.

We learn some more about Deighton during his adventures on Fulton Street. In a conversation with Seifert Yearwood, we learn that Deigton’s goal is to learn some accounting and get a job that makes as much as a white person. Despite Yearwood’s attempts at getting him to snap back to reality, Deighton persists in his dream. We also learn that Deighton has a mistress that he sees on Saturday nights.

Silla seems to harbor a dislike for Selina. She seems to believe that her and Deighton are making plans about the land that he has received. Silla confronts Selina about this and even returns to memories about her dead son. However, in an act of defiance, Selina tries to snap Silla back to reality and storms off.

In the second book, Selina receives permission to go out on her own. With her best friend, Beryl, she travels through Brooklyn. They eventually reach Prospect Park, where Selina sees two lovers on the ground. She grows sad because, according to her, they have achieved “the fullest freedom” (47). In this scene, she also expresses a “sullen despairing anger” of becoming a woman.

There are also a few minor characters we encounter.

We are introduced to Suggie Skeete, a tenant that lives with the Boyces. She seems to be known for bringing in men to her bedroom on the weekends. Miss Thompson is an older and frail woman who works at the beauty parlor on Fulton Street. She is revealed to have an ulcer on the instep of her foot (23). In addition, we encounter Miss Mary and her daughter, Maritze. They are two white tenants who live with the Boyces. Miss Mary is very old and weak. She lives in the past and spends most of her time replaying old memories. Maritze tries to snap Miss Mary back to the present but fails to do so repeatedly.

As I was reading, I noticed some parallels between the characters. Miss Mary and Silla are similar to each other in that they are both living in the past. Miss Mary has frequent flashbacks on past events and even refuses to move out of the house that she and her daughter live in. In a similar way, Silla tends to remember her dead son and lament over his death. She even compares Selina to him during their argument.

Similarly, Deighton and Suggie seem to parallel each other. Both seem to be carefree. In addition, they have their lovers. Suggie invites men over to her bedroom for a night during the weekend. Similarly, Deighton has his lover, whom he also sees during a night on the weekends.

In addition, Selina and Miss Thompson are similar to each other. Both are frail but in different ways. Miss Thompson works long hours and even has an ulcer on her foot. However, Selina is frail emotionally. She seems to experience conflicting feelings of anger, sadness, and happiness at random times, especially at the end of book 2.

I found Deighton’s situation quite ironic. He wants to eventually go back to Barbados and build a home there. When he recounts his childhood to Selina, his words seem to contain a hint of nostalgia. Yet, he strives to be like a white person. He wants to have a high status and make a lot of money; however, due to the color of his skin, something like that is difficult to accomplish. I feel sorry for him. Although he does not express it, he seems to be torn between his home country and the country he lives in now as well as in his feelings for Silla.

Finally, I was struck by Selina’s defiance. At the end of book 1, Selina tries to knock into her mother the idea that she is not her son and maybe even hints that she should forget about her. Then, “Selina darted around her and strode from the kitchen” (40). Selina is unlike any of the other characters in the book. Most of these characters seem to accept their fates and prefer not to do anything about it. However, Selina seems to prefer to challenge what is set out before her, even if that means challenging her own mother.

Mohamed Mohamed

Book 1 of Brown Girl, Brownstones begins with an introduction to the main character, Selina. Selina is an African-American little girl living in Brooklyn with her father, mother and older sister. Ina. Selina then finds a family photo before she was born. In the photo she is able to recognize her father but everyone else seems to have changed. Also she finds a baby boy in the photo that she explains has died. She makes her way to the basement where her older sister, Ina, lay sick. Ina is struggling with menstrual cramps that Selina is too young to understand. After bothering her sister a bit she meets with her father. Her father, Deighton, tells Selina stories of how he always had something fun to do as a kid and was never bored like her. He then informs her that he has acquired land from a diseased relative. He was really excited and wanted to keep it secret for the time.

We are the introduced to the other characters living in the Brownstones. There was Suggie who, every Saturday, waited for her lover. They would spend the night together to ease their long week at work. Also, there lived Maritze and her mother, Mary who had disputes about almost everything. Maritze dreamed of once moving from her poor neighborhood and buy a nice home somewhere in Long Island. Mary argues that she will not leave and nothing will convince her to leave.

When Deighton finally tells his wife Silla about the land he acquired, she was in disbelief. Deighton had a hard time convincing his wife. She finally read the letter and suggested that he sell it and use the money for down payment of there home. Deighton is enraged and refuses to sell the land. He claims that it is his land and he’ll do what ever he pleases with it. The debate continues between the two. Silla then goes to her pregnant friend who advises that she convince him to sell it no matter what. Silla goes to her daughter Selina for help. She tells her to try and convince her father to sell the land but Selina refuses. She agrees with her father to not sell the two acres. Her mother is angered and strikes her.

Book 2 was very short and helps us become more familiar with Selina. She is now eleven years old. After Suggie gave her rum and has a quick talk with her mother she makes her way to the nearby park. She first calls for her friend Beryl who was sitting at the family table with her father. Beryl’s father asks Selina about her father and if he is planning to sell the land. She lets him know that her is not selling the land, which brings an unpleasant remark on his face. Selina was able to tell that he did not like her father and thought he was a failure for trying to work with the white man. Afterwards, Selina and Beryl go out for a stroll that seems like a date. They then begin talking about adolescents and what happens to a female. Selina is not fond of the idea and denies that will ever happen to her. Beryl explains that it happens to every girl and that it already happened to her and Ina. Selina is lost for words and feels deeply uncomfortable. Beryl embraces Selina to comfort her.

In Jason Parker’s article, “Capital of the Caribbean”, Parker describes the growth of equality and politics in the Harlem area due to many international affairs occurring at that time period. Ever since the black immigrants came to the Harlem area, they attempted to influence the politics of their surroundings. Early on around the WWII time frame, many Caribbean immigrants and the native African Americans formed political organizations that rallied for equality and justice in the community. On the international scale, Italy advanced into Ethiopian territory and tried to take over the area. Throughout the African history, Ethiopia stood as a symbol of pride and strength for the black people. The Ethiopians had resisted many invaders since the beginning of time. With the invasion into Ethiopian territory, many of the black people around the world, including in Harlem, were angered by this ordeal. This situation brought the black people together to rally for support for the Ethiopians. The United States of America did not want to get involved directly with this international affair, so they formed a deal where the U.S. received many naval bases in many of the Caribbean nations. Franklin D. Roosevelt became involved with many of the Caribbean affairs within the U.S. and within the countries where the naval bases were located. This whole ordeal led to the advancements of black equality in the U.S. as the blacks placed pressure on Roosevelt to support the Caribbean economy. This was the beginning of the path for black equality in the United States of America and in international countries.

Paule Marshall’s novel, Brown Girl, Brownstones is a great literary piece that shows the insights of what many of the Caribbean immigrants faced while living in Harlem of NYC. The novel centers around a young girl, approximately the age of 11, named Selina. She lives in the town of Harlem with her older sister, named Ina, her father, named Deighton, and her mother, named Silla. At the start of the story, Selina describes the setting of the brick and gothic styled houses on her block. This is the first time the readers realize how the Caribbean immigrants of the town viewed the houses on Harlem. Selina loved the way the houses looked with their majestic beauty and she always thought, “her house was alive” (Marshall 2).

The readers can see that Selina, like many other kids living in Harlem as immigrants, experiences many conflicts within herself about her relationship to the white people in the Harlem community. Selina reminisces about living with a white family and feeling proud to be one of them, “she was no longer a dark girl alone…she threw her head back until it trembled proudly” (Marshall 3). However, once Selina remembers who she is and how the white people in Harlem treat Caribbean immigrants, she becomes distraught and feels left out of the world, “She did not belong here. She was something vulgar in a holy place” (Marshall 4). Whenever Selina’s family received old hand-me-down clothes from the Jewish families in the neighborhood, “Selina would spend the day hating the unknown child to whom they belonged [to]” (Marshall 8).

On the other end of the spectrum, Marshall’s novel shows the many difficulties that the white families faced as they were slowly displaced from their homes as the immigrants came flooding into Harlem. In the same brownstone house that Selina lives in, there lives a sick elderly woman named Miss Mary and her adult daughter, Maritze. These two women are white people who had lived in Harlem before the influx of black immigrants who came to the area. Miss Mary and Maritze face many complications with each other due to their different opinions. Miss Mary wishes to stay in the same home in Harlem while Maritze desperately wants to leave the Harlem area for a better place. Maritze pleads with her mother and says, “Every decent white person’s moving away, getting out. Except us. And they’re so many nice places where we could live” (Marshall 30). The readers grasp the fact that many of the white families who are still left in Harlem as their companions leave the place are filled with many hard difficulties. There were many changes occurring to the Harlem community for both the white families present there and for the new immigrants families that were coming into the area.

The novel shows the hardships that the immigrant families face when it comes to getting jobs and for getting a place to live in. Deighton, who is the father of Selina, is a man who tries out new jobs all the time. He is always looking for a job that can get him a good amount of money. Deighton is currently enrolled in a training center to become an accountant. He had heard that the white people earn a lot of money in this profession. However, many of his black friends make it clear to him that the white people will not let him receive the same salary as them. Seifert Yearwood says to Deighton, “you can know all the accounting there is, these people still not gon have you up in their fancy office and pulling down the same money as them” (Marshall 33). Deighton becomes offended and moves along on his own way. This short but important encounter between the two friends shows the everyday struggles that the immigrants faced in this new land. They had to work really hard just to make a living enough to support the family. It was hard for the Caribbean immigrants to move up the social ladder in society.

The novel also depicts the strains that many couples in relationships experience from living in poverty. Deighton and his wife, Silla, have a very unstable relationship due to their differences about what their future should be like. Deighton’s sister had died back in his native country, leaving a plot of land around 2 acres large in his name. Deighton had always wanted to go back to his native country to live there with his own people. Silla, however, has different views on their lifestyle. Silla desperately wants to stay in Brooklyn and buy one of the brownstone houses for their family. Silla keeps insisting Deighton to save some money up every week to use as the down payment for the house. Deighton, however, is insistent on keeping the land so that the family could live in his native country, Barbados. This forms a hostile relationship between the two. Silla even takes it a step further by saying, “I feel I could do cruel things to the man [Deighton]” (Marshall 27). Their relationship highlights the importance of trying to make a decent lifestyle for the family. Silla wants to buy a house so that the family could live comfortably in the neighborhood. Deighton, on the other hand, wants to leave Harlem and the Americas to go back home, where he feels his family will be the safest and the happiest. It shows the effort that many of the immigrants made just to etch out a comfortable living for their family.

“Capital of the Caribbean” by Jason Parker explains how Harlem was the “nexus” of the drive for black freedom. Prior to WWII, blacks in Harlem were organizing politically and gaining power as to pushing for equal rights. This effort was pushed forward when Italy invaded Ethiopia, which was a symbol of black freedom, strength, and resistance. The occupation of Ethiopia united the not only the Caribbean and African blacks in Harlem, but also blacks around the world in an effort to promote black freedom. Following the invasion, the U.S. had completed a bases-for-destroyers deal with the English. This deal gave the U.S. control over many caribbean naval bases in return for old destroyers, thus the U.S. continued to seem neutral in the war. To prepare the islands for the naval bases, President Franklin D. Roosevelt sent Charles Taussig, a former molasses company owner, to learn about the islands. To show his credibility, Taussig had letters of support from Walter White who was a leader of the NAACP. On his trip to the caribbean, Taussig spoke to caribbean leaders and radicals who advised him on the matters of the islands. Not only did Taussig have to take into consideration the caribbean islanders, but also the voting black population living in New York who were paying attention to FDR’s every move. After returning, Taussig pushed FDR to initiate a caribbean policy that respects caribbean cultures and promotes the improvement of the Caribbean economy and government.

The first book of Brown Girl, Brownstones by Paule Marshall introduces the Boyce family and our protagonist, Selina Boyce. Selina lives in a brownstone house in Flatbush with her Father, Deighton, her mother, Silla, and her older sister, Ina. From the beginning of the novel, we learn that of Selina’s jealosy of Ina who is coming of age. We also learn about the the Silla’s second child, a baby boy, who died of heart problems before the birth of Selina. At home on a hot summer day, Selina talks to her father in a the sun parlor where her father received a letter informing him of two acres of land he received from his sister in Barbados. Deighton says he plans to moving back to the island where he will build a house on the acres. After talking to her father, Selina goes out to buy “Hootons” where she meets her friend, Beryl, who, like Ina, is coming of age and thus shames Selina. In the brownstone house, the Boyce family is accompanied by Suggie Skeete who has a lover every saturday night to wash away the week’s troubles. Also living the brownstone house is Miss Mary and her daughter Maritze. Miss Mary used to work for a white family and in her old age lying on the bed, all she does is recall the times she worked for the family. This nostalgia angers her daughter Maritze who believes her mother was mistreated and abandoned by the white family. Maritze prays to god and whispers “I don’t want to hear about those people…I don’t want to hear…” When Silla comes home and Deighton meets her, they argue over Deighton’s “idleness.” Silla wishes Deighton would save money for the down payment of the house, but instead he buys silk shirts and wastes his time learning about jobs he will never get. Beyond his uselessness in finances, Deighton continues to see a concubine which infuses resentment in his wife. When Deighton tells Silla of the land, Silla screams at him to sell it so they can pay off their home, but he refuses and says he will do what he pleases. Silla then states that the land is a lie which angers Deighton who teases her by saying ” you’s god; you must know.” After Deighton storms out of the house, Silla meets with her pregnant friend Virgie Farnum to whom she explains her indignation of Deighton. Virgie agrees, and explains of the hardship Deighton causes for his loving mother back in Barbados who spoiled him with love and money she didn’t have. At night, Ina tells her mother that Selina and her father were talking about the land, thus Silla seeks to confront Selina to gain more information. When she does so, Silla struggles to get Selina to speak and strikes her child. Selina tells her mother she wouldn’t mind going to Barbados with her father. This enrages Silla who screams that she was “third class,” “working harder than a man at 10 years old” and about how she begged her mother to send her to America where she would work and send money. But Silla ended up with a no good man and a brought a child in the world ” to whip [her].”

Book 2 of Brownstones, Brown Girl Begins with Selina going to Beryl’s home so the two can go to Prospect park. Their, Beryl’s father express his distaste of Deighton Boyce, calling him a “disgrace” for not knowing how to handle a family or finances. On the bus to Prospect park, Selina believes she is free of her home and troubles. At the park, the two go to the zoo, watch lovers on the grass, and see boys playing baseball. Sitting under the shade, Beryl explains to Selina how she “bleeds” and gets cramps, and how her figure is improving. Beryl says it will happen to Selina soon, but Selina objects saying that that it won’t.  Beryl says she Selina won’t understand as she is only a “kid” although Beryl is only one year older than her. Selina is ashamed and her prior feeling of freedom is gone as she is “still trapped within a hard flat body.”

There were several parts that I found particularly interesting in these six chapters. James Weldon Johnson, the same man who dealt with the conductor in the first three chapters, “counted 160 churches in 1930” Churches played a significant role in Harlem between 1900 and 1930. Previous chapters spoke of the “On to Harlem” movement and how ministers influenced blacks to move to Harlem by referring to the migration as a sort of crusade.

Churches acted as a connection to the culture that Caribbean immigrants left behind. Through churches they could preserve their customs and traditions despite living in New York and were thus referred to as “homeland societies”. This also contributed to some of the resentment between Caribbean immigrants and native blacks who believed that Caribbean blacks were not assimilating, but were holding on to their previous cultures. They felt that Caribbean immigrants’ loyalty lied with their homeland and not with America, which troubled and offended native blacks especially during the time of the First World War.

On the other hand, some Caribbean immigrants who attended black American churches were discomforted by the very emotionally expressive practices done in these churches. One American-born Caribbean, E Ethelred Brown, stated that their emotional practice “dangerously borders on fanaticism.” Ironically, churches were in some cases a unifying factor amongst blacks. Some American black denominations tended to have Caribbean ministers, while some Caribbean denominations had black American ministers. The African Methodist Episcopal church was one such church that many Caribbean immigrant ministers and a predominantly native born congregation.

The section on Marcus Garvey was also particularly interesting. Marcus Garvey was the founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association. Garvey’s idea of improvement was black unity and black purity. This sparked the unsuccessful Back to Africa movement, which operated with the idea that blacks could not fully prosper in America. They needed to fully separate themselves in order to thrive. Despite Garvey’s radical ideas, he was empowering black people. Being a part of the black race was the reason that many people were treated unjustly and couldn’t move upwards in society. While this might have felt like a weakness, Garvey presented it as the source of their strength and power. Garvey believed that they needed to preserve the purity of their race in order to maintain this strength.

Despite this, Garvey caused much harm to blacks trying to integrate into American society, and what else could you expect when Garvey claims things like deep down all whites were members of the KKK? Garvey even went as far as to meet with the Ku Klux Klan. Other black leaders like W.E.B. Du Bois tried to undo Garvey’s damage by discrediting him. He wrote that Garvey’s ideas did not reflect those of intelligent blacks. He even referred to Garvey as a fat, little, and ugly man. Unfortunately, some damage was already done, as Garvey was sometimes mistakenly associated with the NAACP instead of the UNIA. Eventually, Garvey was deported technically due to mail fraud and the Back to Africa movement did not succeed.

In 1900 there were 60,000 African Americans in the city, 5,000 of which were foreign-born. By 1930 Manhattan was home to 224,000 African Americans including 40,000 foreign-born, and Harlem had the largest population of Caribbean immigrants. Prior to the popular migration to New York, Caribbean people mostly participated in interterritorial migration. This began after many were freed from slavery and moved away from their former plantations. However, there were several immediate issues that they encountered. Due to a lack of land reform, freed slaves had no real opportunities to be landowners, but instead were stuck as laborers. Additionally, the large volume of unemployed people made it very difficult to find available jobs. Eventually between 1904 and 1914, many moved to Panama to work on the Canal. It was in the Canal Zone that many Caribbean people first encountered American-style Jim Crow laws.

At the start of World War I, Caribbean people were immigrating to New York at the same time that native blacks were migrating from the southeastern seaboard. Additionally, blacks were being pushed upward towards Harlem, pulled by the availability of homes devised by Philip Payton and other African American real estate agents. The result was a rapid peopling of a black, heterogeneous Harlem. This new and upcoming community produced interesting reactions from blacks and whites.

Many African American leaders hoped that incoming blacks from both the South and the Caribbean would align with and contribute to the goals set for the entire race, many of which involved attaining higher social class. Some looked to Caribbean immigrants as models for the “representative negro” that all members of the race should aspire to imitate. W.E.B. Du Bois wrote that the Caribbean immigrants were sensible and hardworking people and referred to them as “cultural heroes”. On the other hand, many native blacks felt threatened by the immigrants, many of whom were educated. They feared that they would compete for jobs and their place in society. To assert superiority, some native blacks would form exclusive social groups and prevent Caribbean immigrants from joining.

Examining “race” as a social construct was a new concept to me, and it was interesting to see how it applied. Native blacks and Caribbean immigrants were both categorized as “black”, however, whites tended to treat Caribbean blacks better after realizing they were not native. Booker T. Washington spoke of a man who was trying to get a hotel room and the worker who spoke to him with great resentment, but upon realizing he was a Caribbean immigrant, the worker’s resentment was replaced with respect. Claude McKay recalled a time when he did not have on him his registration card and was arrested because he believed to be a draft dodger. When a judge heard that McKay was from Jamaica he complimented the country, referred to McKay as “sir”, and dismissed his case. Additionally, two black men on the train were asked to move to a Jim Crow car by the conductor, but when the conductor heard them speak Spanish he withdrew his request and began to treat them like any other passenger. This prompted some African American leaders to encourage blacks to get ahead by learning Spanish. Some native blacks could even benefit socially when they would be mistaken as immigrants. These incidents prove that race is just another way to categorize humans, and while it is helpful in many respects, it has produced a baseless hierarchy of worth many times throughout history.

Politicians in the Harlem community did not reflect the neighborhood. They were mostly white men who rose to power using Tammany Hall, a corrupt political structure that provided kickbacks/ benefits to immigrants. In the beginning, this system was mostly offered to Irish, Jewish, and Italian immigrants, but would extend into the black/ Caribbean neighbors. Tammany Hall fought for immigrants’ right to citizenship and the right to vote, but only as a basis for the extension of power for certain politicians who believed that they could easily manipulate the immigrants for their needs. This system would weaken into the 1940’s, in which the first black politicians started to gain leeway, but it was a major roadblock for progress. Tammany Hall would try to establish its power by dividing Harlem between native blacks and Caribbean immigrants.

In response to World War I, there was a revival of nationalism and nativism, which lead to anti-foreign sentiment. Tammany Hall refined this notion to divide native blacks and Caribbeans from amassing power and maintaining their own power. The source of major conflict was job competition, since occupations for blacks were limited and Caribbeans were often preferred in comparison for being “smarter” and “more hard working.” Caribbeans also tended to separate themselves from native blacks and heavily focused on building an ethnic community. However, there was a forum in which there was communication about ideas and “the bigger picture.” This forum was called the stepladder, in which speakers would stand on a soap box and communicate/educate on a variety of issues, like race or evolution. Socialism/ Communist ideas were circulated around Harlem through these forums because under this thought everyone was equal and received the same. This notions undercut the racial split hierarchy in America.

A notable speaker in these forums was Marius Garvey who founded the UNIA. He believed in the return to Africa of all black people as a form of unification. He believed races could not live together equal, the purity of race should be m,aintained racism always is present, and that black people needed to exclusively run a country. In this account, he disregarded all ethnic divides and backgrounds of black people and this diaspora to Africa is much more of an imperialism policy than a freedom from oppression. His plan was to empower blacks from America and elsewhere to fight for their civil rights and work towards an individualized economy before the move to Africa. He was deported on a small charge in order to prevent the spreading of his radical ideas. He is now seen as a prophet in the the Rastafarian community.

People in Harlem struggled to establish their own businesses. Businesses required community support, but were very difficult to keep afloat competitively. Businesses often could not keep up to other white business. Caribbeans often ran more businesses and had a niche market in selling ethnic food. Illegal businesses, on the other hand, like the numbers game brought together the neighborhood as well as was participated in by outsiders. It provided multiple jobs like bankers and runners, and it was profitable. people would play hoping to win big, like the lottery. In this circle, the big bosses often become well known and rich. St. Clair, a women running the operation opposed to police framing people and fought for civil rights. Holstein would donate large sum of money to the community. Pompez was a famous baseball player. These black bosses would have to protect their territory from outside gangsters. like Dutch Schultz, who would try to overtake their operation.

Literature played an important component to Harlem culture. It exposes the struggle of wanting to be accepted in American culture, yet being impeded by race and by being a foreigner- Claude McKay was a well known Jamaican writer.

Overall, my favorite chapters were the Panama Canal and the Underground Enterprise Chapters. I like learning about the underbelly of society that drove change.

Adrian Horczak

People of New York

Professor Jenifer Lutton

February 18, 2015

Blood Relations Ch. 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, & 11

The book has a theme of conflict and cooperation. The black residents of Harlem formed their own social groups, lodges, and churches as a way of working together to find solutions to the hardships they faced in New York City. They struggled getting positions in low wage jobs like janitors and servants. Even if they had the credentials to work in a more favorable position, they were denied that possibility. Thus, African Americans decided to try and start their own businesses by appealing for help from a few wealthy black Americans. They worked together to make their voices heard and some were imprisoned and punished because of ideas thought to be too radical by the white American leaders. One of the best ways to get support for black civil rights was by being economically successful. The lack of access to well paying jobs did not stop them because black Americans started their own successful, although illegal businesses, running lotteries.

In addition, black Americans developed a system of patronage based on personal loyalty to deliver their votes to white Republican candidates. Some even received great rewards for being so loyal. For example, John W. A. Shaw became the Deputy Tax Assessor for Queens, the highest position held by an African American in the state. As they shifted slowly from the Republican to the Democratic Party at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century, they formed other organizations to ensure their voices were heard. They made it a priority to encourage leaders to hire blacks in professional jobs. At that time, there were no black police officers.

Feeling a sense of unity among blacks, some African Americans wanted all black people to separate from whites and unite together in Africa where they can govern themselves and provide opportunities for one another. A well-known proclaimer of this idea was Marcus Garvey. The American Revolution inspired Garvey since Americans formed their own successful nation. For many, his ideas seemed very radical and his meetings with the Ku Klux Klan made people feel suspicious of his activities and beliefs. Fearing a revolution of black inhabitants occurring, whites tried to find ways to deport the Jamaican immigrant Marcus Garvey. Therefore, they accused him of mail fraud, imprisoned him, and later deported him from the United States.

A very successful business in Harlem was the lottery. Although illegal, the lottery was the largest employer of black workers in Harlem. In addition, the entrepreneurs that ran the lotteries were respected within the neighborhood. The lottery also helped many small businesses thrive because they collected bids from customers. Popularity was very high among black Americans, but white Americans also participated in this illegal, African-American owned enterprise. Those responsible for running these lotteries pocketed between two thousand to six thousand dollars a week. They used their large sums of money to secure equal political rights for all blacks in America.

It is ironic that lotteries were outlawed when they were so popular among working class and upper class people. Today there are a lot of popular lotteries, since they became legal.

In the next chapters of Blood Relations, we no longer discuss the emigration of Africans and Caribbean immigrants to the U.S. but rather their settlement. These immigrants, finally in Harlem, begin to diffuse into the culture through various mediums. First and foremost, it is through churches, some that have been founded years prior to the immigrant wave, and some that are founded by these incoming immigrants. Other than churches, there were benevolent societies that sought to help incoming immigrants by offering jobs and housing. Beyond churches and societies, the black immigrants joined the political scene of harlem, although this scene was limited to mainly the elite financially stable and was overall still run by the corrupt Tammany Hall. One political individual, Marcus Garvey, a native of Jamaica is discussed in great detail due to his contribution to the harlem community and his notorious ideology and Pan-African plot. Furthermore, these chapters take a look at the gambling society of harlem and the wealthy bankers that capitalized on it, yet returned back to the community. Finally, the chapters discuss the contributions of Caribbean immigrants to Harlem’s newspapers, literature, arts, and history.

Chapter 4 of Blood Relations emphasizes the importance of religion in the Harlem community. Incoming foreigners, most of whom came from islands that practiced various forms of Christian religion, were attracted in masses to the available churches. One church, the African Methodist episcopal was a hub for almost 60,000 members, a portion of who were Caribbean islanders. If the available churches did not attract the Caribbean immigrants, then they would found there own, and base those churches on their home island’s practices. Churches however were not only for the practice of religion however. These churches were social clubs through which immigrants where able to communicate with other immigrants and natives. In doing so, immigrants were able to maintain a sense of their homeland and to also assimilate to the Harlem American society. Churches that were financially well-off, such as the AME, were able to further their image as social clubs by financing weekly dances for Harlemites. These dances attracted new members, but also kept current members interested and close-knit. Other institutions were also created to benefit immigrants. Labeled as “benevolent societies”, these organizations were founded to support incoming immigrants by offering jobs, housing, and community gatherings. Through such institutions, Caribbean and African immigrants were able to more easily diffuse into the American society.

Chapter 5 of Blood Relations discusses the Political scene in Harlem during the influx of Caribbean and African Immigrants. In this chapter we learn that Caribbean immigrants and the native blacks did not get along in the political scene due to differing ideologies. Specifically, native blacks believed the immigrants were too radical in their mindset and beliefs. Even if the two groups did come to a consensus, it would have made no difference considering that they did not have power in politics. People of color were not given voice as they had no representation and disallowed to have any. Still however, political figures grew in the black community, most of them however were of the black elite. Tammany hall, the local government was supremely corrupt at the time, and of course had a discrimination of blacks. However, the organization realized the growing number of possible black voters and thus sought to employ black politicians that severed their interests. However, the politicians they funded would further cause detriment as positions were given due to favoritism and nationality. Caribbean politicians would seek to avoid giving black natives positions if even they deserved it. This caused further political discourse between black natives and the incoming immigrants.

Chapter 6 of Blood Relations focuses on the political scene in the streets of Harlem. Specifically, there is a focus on the stepladder as a medium through which orators were able to express their political positions in the streets of Harlem. Due to the limited restrictions of speech on the streets, many of these orators would discuss topics unspoken off in political halls. Many would discuss the oppression of the black Americans and some would discuss socialism. Female orators even preached from the stepladder. These brave women would also speak of topics previously unspoken of, such as the rights of the black woman, and birth control. The street corner was a unique political scene. Through this medium, the identity of the orator need not be introduced, thus an audience cannot preach hatred of the speaker’s background because they do not know it. Furthermore, an audience could decide whether they disliked or liked an orator on the spot, without having to listen if they wished not to. Thus the street corner was a place only for ideas, and through the preaching of ideas, many orators rose to prominence. One such orator was Jamaican born Marcus Garvey who preached of black nationalism. The impact of the stepladder was not limited to the street corner however, as the ideas discussed led to gatherings afterwards, for example socialist gatherings, and even to organizations such as the African Blood Brotherhood. Therefore the street corner was arguably a vital and useful part of Harlem politics. The only thing stopping an individual from speaking would have been weather. Through the stepladder, unknown politicians were able to rise to power through street support and contentious yet significant ideas were able to discussed freely.

Chapter 7 of Blood Relations discuses the legacy of Marcus Garvey. Marcus Garvey was a Jamaican born immigrant who supported creating a united African community. He sought to do so for the benefit of Africans, believing that together they are powerful and can aid one another economically and politically. However, he believed that after uniting the African people, that together they must travel “back” to Africa and create their own society free of white oppression where they can rise to power as to challenge the strongest nations in the world, specifically the United States. Being a strong orator, he was actually able to gain a massive number of supporter through his preaching of basic human rights for all, and the promise that the new African society would provide such rights and all the needs for its people. He also preached that, economically, the new African nation would be equal. Garvey wanted his new nation to be run completely by Africans, thus they would have their own economy, government, press, and so on. Garvey was also a believer in racial purity. He disliked the intermixing of black people, especially the mixing of African Americans and Caribbean islanders. He even met with the Ku Klux Klan, as he understood their plight for white purity. He agreed that whites should maintain their purity, and blacks should maintain their own purity and that is why they must move to Africa. Garvey even funded a ship, the “Black Star Liner” as opposed to the White Star Liner to take him and his supporters back to Africa. In the end however, Garvey’s dream was never fulfilled as he was deported to Jamaica, technically for mail fraud. However the true reason behind his deportation was that he was actually gaining a large following and uniting the blacks of Harlem. This was seen as threatening by the white government because they found the the united blacks are dangerous to their society of oppression. Thus, to stop any possibility of an uprising, the government issued a deportation of Garvey and thus ended the dream and the unity. Although Garvey was bat-shit crazy, his overall goal in united blacks was understandable considering what was their current situation of oppression, disunity, and poverty under a white government.

Chapter 9 of Blood Relations focuses on an important part of history in the Harlem community: the numbers racket. The numbers game was similar to the lottery, in that players would choose three numbers, and if those numbers were picked at a drawing time, the player would win some money; simple, yet detrimental. This is because the game was extremely addicting to Harlemites. Harlemites would play the game weekly, spending all of their wages on the seemingly easy game in hopes of winning big money. However, rarely did any one ever win as mob bosses and bankers of the likes Casper Holstein supremely rigged the game to insure limited winners, and infinite profits. No matter however, mob bosses like Casper Holstein were benevolent bankers in that they gave back to the community. Holstein would fund community projects and would help people with financial problems. Furthermore, he would donate wealth to those struggling to make ends meet.  Through such generosity, bankers like Holstein gained massive respect from the community even if the numbers game was illegal. Racketeers also fought back against authorities and kept white mobsters, like Dutch Shultz, out of the underground Harlem economy. An example of this would be Madame Stephanie St. Claire who was one of the most powerful female bosses in Harlem. She was greatly admired in Harlem for her courage and for her opposition to the oppression blacks faced. The numbers game raises the question of whether these bosses were actually generous or rather greedy. This is because the game was addicting to many people and cost them their wages, but the mob bosses would give back to the community. I think I would regard them as benevolent because they weren’t stealing from Harlemites, but rather offered a service and sought to benefit the community.

Chapter 10 of Blood Relations discusses the impact Caribbean Immigrants had on the media in Harlem. Caribbean immigrants were famous for writing in black newspapers such as Opportunity and Negro World. These newspapers would preach the problems blacks faced in the Harlem society and would oppose the oppression of the government. More so however, they provided entertainment. Claude McKay was known for writing book reviews in newspapers, and his reviews were constantly circulated and read. Other than newspapers, Caribbean writers would write books that highlighted the struggle between immigrants and the native blacks. From these books, it seemed that native blacks had a resentment of the incoming immigrants, labeling them “monkey chasers,” and discriminating against them through jobs and housing.Some immigrant writers went somewhat too far in their views, for example Edgar Grey. He highlighted the struggle of dark skinned Caribbean Islanders and stated that black natives were discriminating against his dark skin and those like him. He states, ” If it comes to the place where, these white men’s children think they are going to deprive black men and women of representation, when they are qualified, because of the blackness of their skins, let us speak right here and now, and say that it is going to be a most bitter and vicious war.” Furthermore, Caribbean Immigrants contributed to the arts in Harlem. One of Garvey’s ex-wives,  Amy Garvey, wrote plays. Another playwright was Eulailie Spence who received an award for her play The Whipping. Caribbean immigrants also contributed to music, for example Sam Manning, introduced the calypso genre of dance to Harlem. Finally, through literature, Harlemites gained a new pride and desire of their African heritage. Author J. A. Rogers was a self-taught historian who published books discussing the past lives of Africans. His books were massively circulated and more than 20 editions for each was printed. His book One Hundred Facts About the Negro went through 18 editions in the first eight. This shows the immense interest black americans had of their past, which isn’t surprising. This is due to the fact that most black immigrants and some natives were of 3rd, 4th, or even more generations, and did not know of their African ancestry. Thus, authors like Rogers answered and sparked immense interest in black americans for knowledge about their past.

This book has presented me with a great deal of information which was previously unknown to me. Considering that I commute to Harlem almost every day, it seems right that I should learn about its past and the pasts of the residents that lived here. As I walk to school train station I will try to locate the plethora of places mentioned by Irma Watkins-Owens. I look forward to visiting the Caribbean community of Flatbush.

Starting with Chapter 4, Irma Watkins-Owens begins to truly dive into how the themes of movement and migrations (by blacks from the Caribbean, South, and Latin America) affected the development of Harlem as a unique community. Throughout the chapters she notes how the ethnic dynamics, the conflicts and cooperation between the immigrant blacks and native blacks led to the creation of Harlem being a sort of Mecca for the post-colonization era. Harlem, thanks its strong cultural roots, which were established by kinships, shared property, churches, and social clubs (the last two which were the main focus of Chapter 4), became a center for the black diaspora. Owens notes, “churches were among the fastest growing institutions shaping Harlem’s development as a black community” (57). Churches emerged along cultural lines. They were churches for native blacks, such as the African Methodist Episcopal and Abyssian Baptist churches, however the new churches were created to satisfy the new influx of immigrants from the south and Caribbean. When it came to churches, there were no strict lines of separation between natives and immigrants. A native black priest would serve a congregation of mostly Caribbean immigrants, while an immigrant could find opportunities in “historically black denominations” (59). Lines of separation did occur when it came to social institutions however. Social institutions and benevolent societies were common in the early 1900s in Harlem. There existed a wide variety of clubs and societies, and as Owens writes, “everyone belonged to something” (65). However things like culture, class and even economic status separated these clubs. An example would be the Societies of the Sons and Daughters of New York, which sought out only the best of the New York native African Americans. Other clubs were helpful, mostly for immigrants, as they would provide aid such as food and shelter. Overall these societies were based on three main ideas: “ [M]utual benefit and relief; economic and political adjustment; the perpetuation of desirable conditions in their homelands” (67).

Owens then moves on to talk about Harlem’s struggle for political autonomy. Harlem was unable to get direct political representation due to the conflicts between the immigrant and native blacks. Once the influx of immigration occurred, Caribbean peoples began to move up the political ranks, with men such as William Derrick and Adolph Howell joining other colored Democrats. The growth in immigration and population had also led to the creation of many new businesses and “ethnic based organizations” (80). These immigrants met they adversaries once America began grasp onto the ideals of Nativism. Separations occurred between native and immigrant blacks when it came to social and economical issues. Many saw the immigrants for nothing more than their refusal to naturalize. While many immigrants tried to assimilate to the native African American culture, they still maintained a strong connection to their homeland. The practices of Tammany Hall also caused strife between the groups. There would be an internal fight, as each group struggled to obtain the “[doled] out favors” and jobs by political bosses (86). It was because of these separations between native and black immigrants that Harlem failed to receive a direct representation in government. This led to terrible living conditions: “Overcrowded conditions, inadequate healthcare… high rents… prostitution…” among other things engulfed the Harlem community (91).

One of the leaders to emerge from Harlem’s growing social society and political interests was Marcus Garvey. Garvey was Jamaican born immigrant that moved to Harlem in the early 1900s. Garvey was a strong social activist and supported the ideals of Black Nationalism and Pan-Africanism. He was a stepladder speaker for his group the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), where he advocated for racial unity. Garvey was in support of something much greater than increased rights for Caribbean and native blacks. He proposed a theory of “Back to Africa,” where he depicted Africa as a safe haven and as place where all united blacks can have a fresh start. Garvey received heavy criticism for his beliefs however, and was scrutinized even by other black journalists and writers. They poked at his belief of racial purity. It was this belief that caused him to meet with the KKK, on the grounds that they shared a similar, but separate goal. While the KKK sought to create a dominant white race, Garvey and his followers believed in the creation of a dominant black race. Garvey’s plans to improve the lives of all blacks appealed to many. However, his radical actions caught the attention of the US government. His actions were seen as an attack on Nativist ideals, which grew during the WWI era. Anti-foreign sentiments raged during this time, and it was deemed dangerous that an immigrant could rise up and gain incredible support. While he was jailed and deported on the grounds of fraud, it is hard to ignore the true reasons for his exile.

In Chapter 9, Owens discusses the underground practice of numbers, an illegal lottery game, which also demonstrated the ethnic dynamics of Harlem. Bankers, who were the social and economical heads of numbers, were not only illegal bosses of the lottery, but were incredibly beneficial to the Harlem community. One such person was Madame Stephanie St. Clair. She was a renegade, and even openly expressed her connections to numbers. She worked to demolish the opposition of the Harlem blacks. She defied Dutch Schulz, a gangster who worked to take over the numbers game. She also exposed the police brutality within Harlem, which even led to the suspension of a few officers. Because of her work, she became a folk hero within the Harlem community. The next important banker was Casper Holstein. Holstein, although he kept a really low profile, made millions from numbers. Most of his money, however, he gave back to the Harlem community. Through his philanthropist work he mainly supported education and writing for blacks. Numbers represented something that unified the Harlem community, as native and immigrant blacks, and even some whites played the game. It was heavily set on trust, as players needed honest bankers to pay out if they won.

In the last main chapter, Owens discusses the writers of Harlem. The writing that came out of Harlem described what life was like within the community. Many writers utilized the dynamics between native and immigrant blacks as a basis for their stories. One such example was “City of Refuge” by Rudolph Fisher. He used the conflicts that existed between southern migrants and Caribbean immigrants to create a story about a Jamaican and North Carolina migrant. Writers not only focused on the conflicts, but also on “cross-cultural friendships” (153). They were also several Caribbean writers who utilized their own culture to create unique stories and plays. They would include the native dialect (a Caribbean English), and also music and beats such as calypso. They were other writers, such as Eric Walrond, who used their literary influence to describe the struggle of blacks within the community (156).

Overall, I enjoyed reading Owen’s Blood Relations. Her investigation into the creation of the current Harlem community is unique in its own manner. She investigates, as we discussed in class, at global (i.e. Panama), and local (naming specific streets within Harlem) levels. She does an incredible job of representing a variety of point of views. It is hard to find instances where her writing is one-sided or biased. Her progression is impeccable, and though it was much more of an informative piece, it may as well have been a novel. She clearly maps out the process in which immigrants left their homelands to move to NYC. Her examination of the people themselves is also evenly drawn and distributed. She focuses on people from both the lower and higher classes, as well as everything in between. Her writing has helped me better understand why Harlem is the way it is today. It also makes me wonder what Harlem will be like in the future.

This week we read chapters 4, 5, 7, 9, 10 and 11 of Blood Relations: Caribbean Immigrants and the Harlem Community, 1900-1930 by Irma Watkins-Owens. Chapter 7 detailed how churches, fraternal and benevolent societies, and lodges played an important role in the development of Harlem as a community. They were networks that connected the community internally and internationally. There were churches established by both people of Southern black and Caribbean black origins. There was a degree of separation between these two groups, as they were often pitted against each other and were not always on good terms. But even with the segregation Southern blacks joined Caribbean churches and Caribbean blacks joined Southern black churches. There we some organizations that were very exclusive, allowing African Americans of certain class and “native-ness” to join. All these kinds of organizations helped the community tremendously; such as buying buildings to be sold or rented, providing insurance and solidifying networks. It is interesting to see how the types of organizations multiplied over time. At first there were just Southern Black Churches but then more and more types from the Caribbean came until there were over 130. The same thing happened to the lodges and societies as they became specialized to different social classes and to women in addition to men.

Chapter 5 focuses on the political world of Harlem. As the black population in Harlem increased and became more settled, the issue of political power came up. The peoples of Harlem were divided into subgroups, which were pitted together. The complicated network of loyalties and alliances made up the political network of the neighborhood. Tammany Hall was a key player in this, and its story interested me very much. It was a Democratic political machine that represented the interests of mainly white immigrants like the Irish. This organization worked to open up New York to immigration due to its interests. As the population of Harlem became larger, they became an important target for players in the political world. Tammany Hall extended a hand to Caribbean blacks because they were immigrants too and because there were seen to have better education and skills than Southern blacks. This caused a rift between the two communities in Harlem as the Caribbean people were treated better, regardless of being “foreigners.” Afro-Caribbean people were given positions in power, while the Southern African Americans were not. I think it is important to look at things through the lens of politics so I found this section to be helpful for understanding the history of Harlem.

On the topic of politics, Marcus Garvey is an interesting person to study and is the subject of Chapter 7. He was a Jamaican-born man who became very politically involved. His ideals were based in Black Nationalism and pan-Africanism. He believed that all people of African ancestry should return to the Africa and represent their race with a nation of racial purity. Many including the NAACP viewed him as extremely radical. In 1914 he founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and established a permanent organization in Harlem. Harlem became the hub for this worldwide movement and it gained a sizable following. It also used the press, like the Negro World to gain popularity and awareness. He later created the Black Star Steamship Corporation and was arrested over a technicality concerning its advertisement. But this wasn’t the true reason he was arrested. The real reason was that he was seen as a threat because he had an image, resources, and a following. I think it very logical that a movement like this would be started, as it is a product of its age. It is also fascinating to me that this neighborhood became the center of something so important and influential for the world.

Chapter 9 focuses on the “Numbers playing game.” This was the illegal lottery, which employed the most blacks in the Harlem neighborhood. It was played openly until around the mid 1920’s. Watkins-Owens explains how these lotteries worked: “A numbers operation consisted of a banker, a group of collectors or runners who took bets from customers and perhaps several controllers who gathered the money and turned it in to the ‘bank.’” She continues to list other positions that the numbers employed. They were very complex and well organized operations and were completely underground. This brought money to the individuals in charge but also vitalized the economy of Harlem. Some bankers made large sums of money. I find it curious that these organizations were so massive but did not receive much attention. They were the largest employers in Harlem and many played the numbers but the numbers seldom received attention in the press. I am interested in how these massive operations were able to stay underground so effectively.

Chapter 10 focuses on the literary world of Harlem and the interracial relationships between native African Americans and black immigrants. These relationships were expressed in many written pieces of the time. As Harlem’s population became more prominent, the importance of race papers in New York grew in importance. Both native African American and black immigrant writers had a large impact as well. Writers like Claude McKay were supporters of cultural pluralism, which was essential in making Harlem what it was.

Chapter 11 is the conclusion of Blood Relations: Caribbean Immigrants and the Harlem Community, 1900-1930. Watkins-Owens stresses the important role of foreign-born black immigrants to Harlem, which is often times neglected. Race was not the only important factor in Harlem’s development. It was not only a “black neighborhood.” Ethnicity and the cultures of the native African Americans in addition to the Afro-Caribbean people forged the identity of Harlem. It was migrations and movement that made this all possible. After the emancipation of slaves in the Americas, projects like the Panama Canal and international shipping brought large waves of people to New York City seeking opportunity. An integral part of this whole process was the transnational networks that were developed. They allowed for people to move to and from the United States and their home countries and provided support in multiple ways. Divisions existed quite prominently at times between native African Americans and Afro-Caribbean people. Despite this churches, benevolent associations, political movements, newspapers and other organizations tied the community together and gave Harlem and extremely unique and pivotal role.

Throughout the many chapters of Blood Relations, written by Irma Watkins-Owens, the readers notice the emerging changes that take charge of the Harlem community. Many changes were underway during the years 1900 to 1930. In Chapter 4, known as Churches, Benevolent Associations, and Ethnicity, the growth and the spread of the influence of churches shows the major ways that they impacted the people of the Harlem community. As many native born African Americans and Caribbean immigrants moved to the Harlem region, many new social networks were created to form a sense of community and stability for the people. These organizations formed essential social links that helped assimilate all the colored people into the lifestyle of New York City. Over time, these groups became more specialized, as various types of people kept moving into Harem. I found it interesting that Churches became the first social organizations to become specialized for different types of people. Churches became very essential for most community members in many aspects of life. Churches became involved in all parts of the community; they helped provide many of the housing contracts for immigrants, they helped upkeep old traditions from native countries, and they helped form political connections by offering community members goals to follow. It was also interesting to me that the book mentioned that any man even slightly significant in Harlem, either native or foreign-born, was expected to be a member of one of the major lodges or fraternal orders of the community. This statement shows the major impact that these social organizations had over the community by providing gridlines and creating social connections between the most influential of the community members. The thing that I became curious about was related to the wide array of influence that the Churches seemed to have over the community. In the book, Watkins-Owens makes it clear that many of the community members in Harlem found it nearly impossible to attend church regularly due to the fact that they had to work at their jobs even on Sundays. These workers were mainly porters or elevator men, needing to work extra hours just to etch out a living in New York City. It is also interesting to note that Churches used to cater to only native born African Americans. However, as more Caribbean immigrants came to Harlem, new Churches specialized to cater to their traditions popped up in the community. This shows that social organizations were essential and considered necessary for the community to function.

Although social organizations were some of the most important foundations of the Harlem community, politics and representation in the community was equally important to the members. In Chapter 5, known as Politics and the Struggle for Autonomy, the steps that led to representation in the community and in New York City are outlined. In the first decades of living at the community, black people had no direct representation in politics of the city. As Caribbean immigrants moved into the city, new political alliances started forming in Harlem in exchange for certain favors. Overall, however, most of the black members slowly switched from the Republican Party to the Democratic Party. Slowly over time, influential men, such as Anderson and Morton, who became heads of political parties, helped improve the political position of blacks in the patronage system. Something interesting to note about politics is the development of Tammany Hall in 1786. This organization was a Democratic political machine that favored white immigrants, specifically the Irish immigrants. This organization helped bring political power and influence to many of the white immigrants. These white foreign immigrants tended to gain naturalization and citizenship quickly in an attempt to gain jobs and establish a stable lifestyle. Native and immigrant blacks, however, were slower at the process of gaining citizenship. They weren’t in a rush to gain citizen ship solely for practical reasons. I found this to be very interesting because this was a great way to assimilate Caribbean immigrants into the native African American population of Harlem. However, these immigrants seemed to fear gaining citizenship due to the possibility of losing connection with their traditional roots once they become tied in with the social organizations of Harlem. As the years went by, the local political clubs were mainly available to more influential natives and immigrants. However, these connections allowed blacks for the first time in history to start leading their community by making decisions about community-improvement projects, etc.

With the development of political clubs and institutions, many new radical ideas started to form. Of them all, Marcus Garvey serves as one of the most drastic and dangerous ideology that brings the Harlem community to a dilemma. In Chapter 7, known as Marcus Garvey “Negro Subject of Great Britain”, Garvey’s ideologies and his rise and fall are described and analyzed. After World War I, Marcus Garvey, moved to Harlem in 1916 and founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA). Garvey’s radical ideologies caused much distress in the American communities; there was a lot of opposition to his ideas. On the other hand, he had a lot of support from certain types of people. Marcus Garvey believed that there were better possibilities for the black people if they went back to their native countries. Many Americans feared Garvey’s influence on the blacks because then the employers would lose cheap laborers from their companies. Garvey gained the support of many influential blacks in the communities of America. Garvey’s methods for supporting his ideas became extreme and aroused suspicion. I found it extremely interesting that Garvey met up with the Ku Klux Klan at one point during his campaign. One of the main things that stuck out to me was the fact that Garvey was deported from the country. Apparently, it was due to the fact that Garvey had committed fraud related to his Black Star Line propaganda. However, it seems more likely that this was just an excuse for American officials to get rid of Garvey because he posed a risk to the economies of influential white people in the cities. It is also interesting to note that Garvey’s expulsion from America actually caused an outcry in America by many people in an attempt to provide him with equal treatment for the court case.

While politics and social organizations were on a public display for all the community members to see, illegal underground systems started to develop as the Harlem communities became more intricate. In Chapter 9, known as The Underground Entrepreneur, the development and impact that these illegal systems have on the communities as a whole are thoroughly discussed. One of these systems, known as “Numbers” developed within the community in the 1920s. Numbers, which was similar to an illegal lottery, in the beginning, could be played out in the open. However, police officials became aware of these economic tactics and they tried to put an end to it by making it illegal. In a Numbers operation, there was a banker, collectors/runners (took bets from people), and then controllers (returned money to the bank). Each banker would have many legal staff members who work around the clock. They provided the community directly with most of the jobs. The money that the bankers made, which was a lot, was then used as investments in Harlem property and in small businesses. Many small businesses benefitted from the help of Numbers, thus aiding the community by providing networks and economic support. I found it interesting that white gangsters even started the practice in response to what they saw in the Harlem communities. I also found it interesting that although the bankers from Numbers aided the community by supporting it, many of the community members viewed Numbers as a short-term element. Mostly poor people participated in Numbers. It is interesting to see how a community evolves over time as certain elements change in the community for the better.

As the Harlem communities developed, so did their literary arts and press. In Chapter 10, known as Harlem Writers and Intraracial Ethnicity, one of the most important things, the press, is discussed with a detailed explanation of how it impacted the community. With the press, the tensions between the native African Americans and the Caribbean immigrants are noted in their writings. New York Race papers were produced and maintained by the increasing numbers of black immigrants coming into the Harlem community. These race papers became the center stones for many immigrants to discuss their propaganda and discontent with something in society. The press became very influential in the community during the years 1917 to 1930. During the Depression, many immigrant and native writers talked mainly about the racial tensions that communities had between members. I thought it was interesting that the independent newspapers seemed to express their emotions more freely than newspapers who were owned by white influences.

In Chapter 11, known as Conclusion: Blood Relations in the Black Metropolis, we see the major impact that Caribbean immigrants had on the Harlem communities. It is interesting to note that native African Americans and Caribbean immigrants had a very tense history with one another due to racial reasons. Each group of people created their own social networks and economic systems to help them cope with the harsh living conditions of New York City. These people each formed many types of Churches that helped form goals and unity on a political level. Everyone was able to create a way to seem familiar with their new surroundings. Overall, it was very amazing to see how native African Americans and Caribbean immigrants for the first time in history encountered each other and tried to assimilate themselves into the communities in efficient ways.

With a large influx of Caribbean immigrants came a need for housing resources. These immigrants were able to achieve the housing that they needed through various means, and through collectively organizing ways of completing this task, they were able to form a community of their own in Harlem. By collectively pooling money, immigrant populations were able to purchase reasonably large pieces of real estate, thereby enabling immigrants to move in by the thousands. Once this happened, the same thing that happens when any immigrant population begins moving into an area happened in Harlem: nativist sentiments arose in people who were occupied the area first. Even though both groups were of the same race, their vastly different cultures sparked an instant rift between them. They created slanderous terms for each other, and generally made attempts to voice their dislike for each other. All this was turned on its head when it came to one thing, however. That thing was church. Despite their differences, the two groups were able to peacefully interact, as they all went to the same churches.

Politically, Harlem was quite an exciting place, as the changing demographic gave need for new types of policies, and more importantly, new representation for this new demographic. Paramount to all political goals, however, was the importance of establishing a politically autonomous Harlem that could hold its own against the rest of the city. Unfortunately, there were many hinderances to the political stability of Harlem that took years to become resolved. African American and West Indian blacks were largely not registered to vote or not naturalized citizens, respectively, so it was nearly impossible for them to get proper congressional representation. Finally, however, in 1944 Adam Clayton Powell, Jr. was elected as the first congressman of Harlem.

Marcus Garvey, an important and rather controversial figure in this era, was essentially the black equivalent of a white supremacist. Due to his connections with the Ku Klux Klan and his divisive language, he was largely disregarded and even condemned for his actions. He began the UNIA (Universal Negro Improvement Association) to, as the title of the organization suggests, improve the lives of blacks. He was also known for starting the “Back to Africa” movement in which he encouraged blacks, no matter what ethnicity they identified with, to move back to their ancestral homeland, Africa. This idea was hugely unpopular, garnering essentially no traction, as no significant population made such a move as a result.

As for controversial figures, the Gambling scene in Harlem provided many outlets for people with unsavory intentions to fulfill their desires. The numbers racket was a pervasive and totally illegal gambling game, somewhat similar to today’s lottery, that was lead by “bankers” as they were called in the day. This game put lots of money in the pockets of these few bankers and, collectively, took money right out of the pockets of community members. It really is hard to say whether or not this was a beneficial practice. On one hand, notorious numbers bankers like Casper Holstein were extremely generous donators who arguably made contributions that were invaluable to the success of the community. However, if you look at how his money was obtained, it is impossible to ignore the fact that the money he was using came right out of the pockets of the people he was claiming to help! This glaring contradiction is something that should be carefully inspected before making a final judgement on the efficacy and ethicality of his actions. Personally, I take the stance that his actions were selfishly motivated, and this is proven by his reaction to his opponents who pointed out his illegal methods of obtaining his wealth. While he had mansions on Long Island and a car collection, the community-members whose money he stole were having a hard time even finding suitable work.

This weeks chapters, though extensive we’re also quite intriguing. They opened my eyes to some of the great history in this section of the city that I’ve been blindly living in for the past couple of months. Earlier in the book, the importance of social institutions was touched upon when talking about the construction of the Panama Canal, but chapter 4 really went in depth to elaborate upon this idea. Immigrating to a new country was not easy by any means for most Caribbean immigrants, especially considering all the resentment they received from native African Americans. However, there were a few places where the two groups got along seamlessly. One such social institution of particular importance was church. It makes sense that a strong unifying theme like religion can bring together such a broad group of people that may be of the same race, but have entirely different cultures. In fact, religion even helped a lot of the newly immigrated Caribbeans adjust to a new life in the states. I know from personal experience that Church can be a huge connection for many families. We would associate with people from all kinds of backgrounds, sometimes establishing permanent ties, and even going out afterwards to breakfast or some other event.Its just reassuring to think that admist all the antagonism between native and immigrant blacks, there were some areas where they could come together and socialize under a common theme.

Though I’ve learned a small bit about Marcus Garvey from history classes, it was really interesting to learn a great deal more about him and some of his ideals in chapter 7. He strongly advocated for a unified African movement. By many, he was seen as crazy, but to others, Garvey was seen as a powerful idealist with a plan for total African equality. However, I do believe that there is a fine line that must be drawn and this line was crossed just a few too many times by Garvey. I had never heard, nor would I have ever imagined, a man who advocated so strongly for African equality such as Marcus Garvey to cooperate with the Ku Klux Klan. In fact, some of what professor Lutton had told us in class actually startled me a good bit. I understand that Garvey had similar goals to the KKK,  but to identify with them is just not a very good look. The KlKK is known for violence and hatred towards Garvey himself, amongst other Africans, so surely there were other groups whom he could have chosen to collaborate with. Nonetheless, Garvey’s plan ultimately failed with his deportation back to Jamaica. In the end, he had a nice idea with a strong following, but I don’t think it ever could have actually become more than just that; an idea. As someone mentioned in class, there were just too many African Americans who were multiple generations old and felt stronger ties toward America, despite its many shortcomings, than they did towards Africa.

The only other chapter I really want to talk about is chapter 9. This was by far my favorite chapter. It is unfortunate that there was so much corruption associated with gambling due to its outlaw, because it seemed for the most part to have a very positive effect on the community. Especially in the case of Casper Holstein. Holstein was an avid contributor to philanthropy everywhere, from motivating young blacks to develop their abilities as writers to paying for college students’ expenses to sharing some of the joy with the hungry around the Holiday season. This system benefited not only all those involved in the “bank” but also the community, including a lucky middle class worker with high aspirations for the future who would occasionally win. One line that particularly struck out to me though  was “It is ironical but true that Negroes build things only to have them taken away and exploited by the white man.” This seemed very much the case with the numbers game that so powerfully influenced economics in Harlem. Perhaps if the game wasn’t outlawed, there could have been more protection placed upon the banks from mobsters to foster the business. Still, it was nice to read about some of the bankers who would stand up against the abuse of gangs such as did St. Clair. Her confidence and courage encouraged her business to grow and help all those involved without fear, Obviously the business helped mostly the wealthy bankers, but I feel that the overall positive effect it had on the community as a whole outweighed the negatives. Harlem has had quite a unique history that I had never previously known about but will now begin to recognize as I walk along its streets. The land I walk on now was and still is to an extent the cultural center for various different immigrant groups amongst which are the Caribbeans who played an integral part in forging Harlem’s history.

Religion played a major role in the lives of Caribbean immigrants and native African Americans. Churches became a social center for immigrants and natives alike. Due to this, a second generation Caribbean is more likely to marry a native born African American. What’s interesting is that when this occurs the native would modify the traditions of the Caribbean immigrant. Therefore, places that bring immigrants and natives together accelerates the process of assimilation. There are also many churches in Harlem, one in particular is the Black American Church. This church challenged and modified the culture of Caribbean immigrants. Black churches, however, were also viewed as a business rather than a place of worship. This is contributed to the fact that when compared to Caribbean churches it is far more dominant economically and politically.

Churches were not the only institution that had an impact in the Harlem community. Harlem’s  fraternal and benevolent associations which consisted of mainly members from the Caribbean and black American communities also played a role in Harlem. These institutions “provided mutual aid and also helped establish an individual’s social position and identity.” One particular association is called The Society of the Sons of New York. They recruited men in society that possessed the most respectable traits. For example, politicians, real estate speculators, and professionals. Benevolent associations provided members with health and death benefits. Fraternal orders are similar to benevolent associations because they “de-emphasize one’s ethnic background while promoting racial solidarity, self-help, and self-reliance.” Churches, benevolent associations, lodges and fraternal orders assisted Caribbean immigrants and southern migrants by familiarizing them with the community.

As more immigrants started to settle in Harlem a man by the name of Marcus Garvey appeared to spread his radical ideals. Garvey was born in Jamaica and founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) in Jamaica in 1912. UNIA was created to create a black nation in Africa by convincing African Americans to return to Africa. In 1916, Garvey settled in New York and created a UNIA chapter in Harlem. This chapter promoted the ideals of social, political, and economical freedom for blacks. In 1918, Garvey published a newspaper called Negro World to convey his message. This posed a threat to nativists because the press was transmitting radical ideas. African Americans also disliked Garvey because he was considered radical and they didn’t want to be grouped with him. In 1919, Garvey and UNIA launched the Black Star Line which was a shipping company that established trade between Africans in America, the Caribbean, South and Central America, Canada and Africa. The Black Star Line lead Garvey to be jailed due to mail fraud in 1923. In 1927 he was released and deported back to Jamaica. Garvey became the inspiration for black nationalism and he inspired other leaders such as Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr.

Other than religious institutions and political figures, there was another side of Harlem. Harlem was being overrun by numbers. These numbers or the “Number Playing Game,” became Harlem’s economy. The number operation consisted of a banker, collectors, controllers, and a legal staff. This was a planned out team because each role is in charge of a part of the operation. For instance, the collector is the ones who take the bets from customers, the controllers are the ones who gathered money and turned it in to the bank, and finally the legal staff is there to ensure the safety of all employees. The banker is the head of the operation because he arranges all political affiliations and pays all fines imposed on his employees. In order for a banker to be successful, he or she must have a good reputation. This means that the banker has to deal fairly and give back to the community. To play the numbers game, a player would pick a set of digits between 000 and 999. If they chose correctly they would win, if not then they lose. It is similar to the lottery we have today. The numbers game wasn’t limited to only African Americans. There are also white New Yorkers who play and give their money to a colored collector. This is interesting because when it comes to a game blacks and whites are treated equally, however, in reality whites come out superior. Race is more of a social implementation rather than a biological one.

The differences that caused discrimination between blacks and whites were also the causes of the animosity between the different ethnicities that were considered part of the black race. In the last few chapters, there were many interesting people mentioned that had different reactions to this situation. There were others that managed to build enterprises while not being affected by the divide at all. People that stood out to me were Marcus Garvey, Claude McKay, Madame Stephanie St. Clair, and Casper Holstein.

The idea for the mass return to Africa by Marcus Garvey was astounding. He did manage to get a large following that agreed with this idea, and to be proud of being African. It would also take a sane person a huge amount of courage to meet with the Klu Klux Klan, but I am guessing that fear was the smallest thing in his mind when he was closing in on the confrontation. Leading such a huge population to Africa would lead them back to an imperialistic government with there still being a lower class feeling suppressed. Creating a black-controlled economy however, was a great idea that was somewhat done with by the bankers in the numbers game.

Claude McKay was a Jamaican writer that wrote many pieces about alienation, both from native white Americans, and native black Americans. The first generation of black immigrants cared more about ethnic identity than race, thus creating the establishment that McKay found so unwelcoming. However from these experiences he started getting closer to other black ethnicities. Whether Caribbean or native black, they were still persecuted and greatly threatened in the race riots of 1919. He moved around America with a unit of many other black Americans that would protect each other from attacks. From his books, it is understood that through this experience and many others like this one, there was some level of fellowship that he established with the black community.

During the early 1900s the numbers game, or policy, established a new way of gaining economic capital. This game of chance was so irresistible that even the white community participated in it. There was a quote about white betters paying their debts to black collectors, which was an unbelievable idea at that time period. It was however unfortunate that such instances would only happen in policy, an illegal gambling ring. The profits from the bankers went towards so many different projects that improved the Harlem community. Madame Stephanie St. Clair, in order to protect her business, exposed police corruption to the public. The audacity she had when she confronted the Shultz gang was unbelievable.

Another influential banker was Panama Francis. He used his winnings to start the era of the “Negro League” and he became a major proponent of black involvement in baseball and boxing. The greatest patron however seems to be Casper Holstein. He was a patron of the arts and donator to schools, charities, political organizations, and students. Not only did he do that for the Harlem community, he also did it for the people in the Virgin Islands, and his native country Grenada. It is no wonder that he was praised as a messiah with all the help that he provided to the people that surrounded him. It was a shame that gangsters took him out of the numbers game, and that he eventually ended up as a poor man.

I think that these people deserve more recognition for what they have done to shape New York. Yes, some were considered radical, and others gained their profits through illegal means, but that should not define whom they were. Holstein funded The New Negro, and he also probably funded the education of many intellectuals that were prominent during the mid 1900s. The impact that these businesspeople have had is something that I am considering to research. Starting with so little yet being able to do so much is very inspiring.

“Blood Relations” by Irma Watkins-Owens followed a chronological order of the diaspora of the Caribbean islanders, especially their migration to Harlem, which gradually became one of the most culturally rich centers in the nation. Watkins through her writing, illustrates a timeline for the reader, which briefly enlightens the reader about the pivotal past events. Although there were numerous events leading up to the migration of Caribbean islanders to the U.S., there were even more issues when they finally arrived to the U.S. Unfortunately, the struggle didn’t end when they entered America, it actually just began. Although there were many motifs throughout the book, the most prevalent was the motif of social organization. Throughout the whole book, the black individuals suffer greatly, but they do so while being together. In chapter four, the importance of social networks wasn’t stated for the first time, it was actually emphasized again. Even before settling down, these individuals were constantly conglomerated into one unit, especially due to their nationality. This type of organization was not completely formed by some other higher power, but it was actually somewhat formed by the individuals themselves. And, the reason why they did this was simple, to survive. During these times, many hardships were present, especially economic hardships, thus the best solution was for the individuals to aid each other, because they were all in the same boat. Many instances were mentioned in the book, when the individuals aided each other due to their mutual suffering they faced. The very basic example was family support amongst their kin, which not only gave them hope and motivation, but helped them financially by working hard in horrible conditions such as the Panama Canal, just so that their family could go to the “land of opportunity.” Another example were the individuals that gave newly arrived immigrants a place to stay in Harlem, helping them in an extremely difficult time of their life. These actions of social conglomerations were extended, as mentioned in chapter four, into benevolent social organizations, fraternities, and most importantly churches.

These newly arrived Caribbean individuals faced hostility immediately when they arrived to America. The hostile forces included the black nativists along with the other population of individuals that emphasized racial segregation. These individuals were “cornered” by all the opposition, however, “cornered” with them were also the other Caribbean individuals, which allowed they to form bonds due to their mutual unfortunate predicaments along with the fact that they were the same kin/nationality. Due to the pre-existing ideas of segregation, and social connections, Marcus Garvey took an extraordinary approach albeit radical and extreme, but logical. Garvey’s approach acknowledged the importance of the social relationships that the black individuals have, which has allowed them to survive. Garvey publicly expressed his ideas, and let it be known to everyone explicitly that, they can form an utopia back in Africa, due to the current existing relationships the individuals have today. During these times of hardships and impassable obstacles, the suppressed individuals can only rely on its kin, because they were empathetic of their current situation, because they were “cornered” to the same “corner.” During these times, as mentioned in chapter five, the black individuals faced numerous political hardships. Comprising the majority of Harlem, these individuals still couldn’t bring about change due to the corruption that existed politically. Very few were capable of having their voice heard, but most of the times it was deemed irrelevant by the corrupt government. However, one of the strongest tools was the press, as mentioned in chapter ten. The press served as their most reliable medium to get their ideas across to the suppressed public living in Harlem. During these times, prominent writers such as Claude McKay, who publicized the true conditions of America, depicting it as a place that is both filled with opportunities and hardships. Example of these hardships included the corrupt government, which led to numerous other issues due to their inability to bring about reform. During these difficult times, the immigrant individuals were unable to secure adequate jobs, and were unable to voice their opinion, due to the fear of deportation because of their illegal actions getting into the country. These adversities were circumvented again, through the utilization of their social networks and support.

Reversing back all the way back to when the immigration between nearby islands began in the Caribbean, it was evident that the sole purpose was to improve their economical status. Following the dissolution of colonization, the Caribbean individuals sought to improve their financial standing the only way they knew how…by acquiring land. However, this was nearly impossible considering the supreme aristocrats had all the power, even though the colonization era was over. This brings us to the economical struggle in Harlem, which emphasizes the ongoing endeavors of these individuals. Most of the Caribbean islanders sharing this unfortunate predicament, brought about a strong social bond as mentioned many times previously in the book. Soon the “Numbers playing game,” came into effect, which was much like an illegal lottery. However, the importance was purely altruistic, unlike the definition of lottery we know today, which means if you win, you are then entitled to an extravagant life. This “lottery” was meant to help Harlem as a community, along with the individuals part of that community. Key examples of the leading altruistic figures that aided Harlem during this troublesome time were: Casper Holstein, Panama Francis, and Cuban Alexander Pompez. The individuals known as the bankers aided Harlem tremendously, and showed how social connections were so important for these individuals during this time.

The whole book comes down to the recurring motif of the development and utilization of these important social organizations amongst these alike national/kin individuals. The “numbers game” was deemed illegal, but this didn’t impede the black individuals, because they had no other better alternative. These individuals relied on each other to get through this troublesome time, and they connected so seamlessly because of their “Blood Relations.” These individuals with their similar situations and hardships, shared a bond because they were the same kin, nationality, and race. These defining characteristics form a relationship that was just as important as any other blood relation because these social conglomerations embodied the supportive families they needed. It all comes down to the numbers of individuals that played a vital part in this hectic game of life that each individual had to go through. It all depended on the alliances between the people, which was their only hope to get through this game of life. The whole social network was greater than the individuals that comprised it.

By: Mohamed Mohamed

After completing the book Blood Relations I began to ponder on the chapters. There were chapters that were somewhat a review and others that were just inspiring. However, the one chapter that I could not stop thinking about was chapter 9.

Chapter 9 of Blood Relation was about Harlem’s involvement with the ‘numbers game’. The numbers game can be compared to lottery; people were supposed to guess a three digit number that would win them a grand prize. This gambling business was illegal at the time and police were sent to Harlem to suppress it. Bankers, who often times kept their identity hidden to avoid arrest, controlled the ‘numbers game’. However, after successfully growing their business ‘underground’, the numbers game became very common despite its illegality. The bankers made a lot of money and therefore were able to influence people in office. They became very powerful individuals because the game gained tremendous popularity. With their money, bankers hired African Americans to help them. They also helped the African community in other ways. By investing their money in Harlem properties and businesses, bankers helped raise the community’s expectations about economic progress (p137). The idea was that they provided jobs and other opportunities for the African American community and at the same time the community gave back by further growing their business.

When I finished reading this chapter, I got the impression that these bankers were seen as the ‘good’ guys. As though saying what they were doing for Harlem helped the community greatly. However, what I notice is the bankers taking advantage of the community to grow their illegal business. The Bankers give part of their money back to the community and in doing so it is their way of flaunting their support. It shows that they care for the community and the people. However, this is all a businessman with a despicable business strategy. It is a strategy to use money to gain the respect and trust of Harlem and then in return increase loyal customers. All of it is a façade to keep the people playing the lottery game and help further grow their business.

The odds of winning the ‘numbers game’, like any gambling game, is very low. A person has a 1/1000 chance of guessing a three-digit number correctly. If a game requires a dollar to play and the winner gets 100$, that means for every 1000 players only one will win. The banker will collect 900$ and give the “winner” 100$. If you run the simulations in any case, you will find that the only true winner is the banker. Yet the book explains that ‘numbers game’ was very popular in Harlem community.

Today the lottery industry is one of the largest giants. From the 44 states that allow lottery, people spent an estimate of 68$ billion in 2013. People cannot seem to stop playing lotto. This is so because it is addictive and also because it is encouraged. Lottery is run by the state and in their advertisements playing lotto is portrayed as a way to give back to the community. For example, many lottery ads claim that a certain portion of the lottery money will be given towards education. Therefore, people are fooled to play in hopes of winning and in thinking that they are giving back to the community by playing. “Money in state budgets tends to move around a lot” so trying to focus money on one thing is nearly impossible. For example, North Carolina used 100$ million of lottery money to construct schools. However, this did not mean that the school construction budget has increase 100$ million more because while that money was flowing in, other money sources are flowing out. A portion of income taxes used to go to the school construction budget but that tax money went away and was substituted with lottery revenue (Oliver).

The lottery gives people hope. However, this hope is nothing but a façade. People in Harlem saw the ‘numbers game’ as an opportunity for “economic progress”; they saw it as hope (p137). Hope for better lives, hope to improve their circumstances, hope to finally compete with the white man, hope for progress but sadly it provided none of that. Lottery does nothing but change the course of money circulation. What Harlem has done is give this power to a handful of people and expected that the money stay circulating in Harlem. Now, some might claim that these individuals proved to be responsible because they did circulated the money in Harlem by investing in Harlem properties and businesses. Lottery money may directly improve one situation but it is at the same time indirectly harming and creating a more difficult situation somewhere else.

Finally, I would like to share this video that helped me in my mini research on lottery: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9PK-netuhHA

A common theme throughout Blood Relations was heavily focused upon in chapters four and five. This theme is that everyone belongs to something. In chapter four, we were introduced to the many different religious sects, benevolent societies and community gatherings that helped establish an identity for many of the incoming Caribbean immigrants and native southern blacks. I had some idea about the religious sects prior to reading this text as many different migrating peoples formed small communities based around religion all throughout history. What was completely new to me were all of the societies and brotherhoods that were at the disposal of many immigrants. To focus on a few, there were a couple societies focused on different states. Some examples were the Sons and Daughters of New York and the Sons and Daughters of Virginia. These two societies provided many southern migrants with different benefits, but they were both fairly discriminatory. For the Sons and Daughters of Virginia, members had to have been a Virginian by “birth or parentage” to become a part of the brotherhood. To me, this uniting of southern migrants felt like a way of native blacks trying to compete with Caribbean immigrants. By the late 1920s there were already many fraternities based around Caribbean countries of origin, such as the Bermuda Benevolent Society and the Grenada Mutual Association. These groups definitely did not want native blacks as members, leaving many southern migrants searching for their own source of community.

Although native blacks and Caribbean immigrants found it very easy to unite amongst themselves along ethnic and cultural backgrounds, both parties never could cross over and come together over political grounds. Differing political ideas did plenty to keep Harlem scrambled, but the gerrymandering of voting districts didn’t help and the outright refusal to allow some people to vote only worsened the situation. Something that came across as completely idiotic to me was the lack of effort to recruit native blacks to vote, at first. Many of the political machines that, at one point, ran New York did all that they could to indoctrinate incoming European immigrants and have them vote for their parties. Yet, there were plenty of Harlemites who were ready and willing to side with certain Tammany Hall politics, but since they were black, they were turned away at the voting booths.

Skipping ahead a couple of chapters, I would like to talk about the lottery. The New York State lottery that millions participate in weekly did not begin until 1967. It was only the third modern US Lottery at the time, behind Puerto Rico and New Hampshire. As discussed in chapter nine, a betting game called “numbers” or “policy” was blowing up Harlem. People from all different walks of life would chip in their spare change in hopes of having their random number come up big and being able to walk away with a few dollars. Now, these betting rings were not necessarily legal, and for the most part, they weren’t run by the friendliest of people, specifically Dutch Schultz. Yet, many of the Harlem bakers who headed various numbers rings, such as Alexander Pompez and Casper Holstein, did so with good intentions. Pompez, known mostly for his owning of a local New York Cuban baseball team, supported many communities with his athletic endeavors. He built sporting complexes for his community and even bought the Dyckman Oval, one of the largest sports arenas in New York. Casper Holstein gave away a lot of his money to the community as well. Holstein would donate hundred of baskets of food and gifts at Christmastime to many different charities while also giving money to the UNIA. Select individuals no longer run lotteries illegally, but many of these bankers’ actions had a significant impact on our lottery today. A large portion of the NYS lottery earnings goes to supporting our school systems, mirroring the many men and women who were put through college on “numbers” winnings.

Ch. 4

Chapter 4 discusses the role that churches and other associations played in Harlem’s development and community building. Churches were becoming the fastest growing institutions because they were attracting large numbers of newcomers and current residents. As a result, they became the social centers of immigrant communities. Through Caribbean immigrant congregations and American black congregations, there was some intersection between the two ethnic groups. This was because members of one group usually participated in the others’ activities and even celebrations. These churches also served to perpetuate the traditions of immigrants’ home countries (including weddings and funerals). Clergy used the congregations and the immigrant community as a base for leadership. For example, pastors were politically active; however, some criticized them saying that they turned the church into a business. Women played an important role in the church, such that congregations that did not have many women often failed to thrive. Fraternal and benevolent associations emphasized immigrants’ social positions and identity. They also aimed to stabilize life and promote upward mobility for immigrants. The fraternal associations, especially, often afforded prestige to their members. Some fraternal associations (like the Society of the Sons of New York) only accepted members native to certain areas. These associations provided sick and death benefits at a time when insurance companies refused to extend coverage or provided very limited coverage to blacks.

I found several interesting points in this chapter.

The author mentions that “membership [in a lodge or fraternal order] usually conferred a large, automatic constituency for anyone aspiring to leadership” (56). It was interesting to see how one could grow a “fan base” just by joining a club. It just served to elevate the fact that these associations were tickets to mobility and prestige.

It was written that native African-American congregations had Caribbean immigrants in (often) high positions such as bishop. I originally had the impression that both groups were mutually exclusive in the area of religion. It seems like that is not the case and that the relationship between native and foreign-born blacks is even more complex than I originally thought.

The services that black Americans conducted in their churches “challenged and broadened” the experiences of Caribbean immigrants. For any immigrant coming to a new country, he/she will always go through a learning experience. In this case, it is perfectly understandable that the black Americans’ so-called “shouting churches” shocked black immigrants. This reminded me of how my parents would always tell me stories about what they learned when they first came to Canada and then (with me) to the United States. They would say that the things they saw “broadened” (the exact same word) their experiences when they first came here. So, I connected with this part of the chapter on a more personal level.

One thing that I found shocking (yet somewhat amusing) was the restrictions present in benevolent associations and how this contributed to their so-called “clannishness” (66). For example, the future president of the woman’s auxiliary of the United Sons of Georgia was “disgraced and ousted” just because she was born on the “boundary line of Georgia.” Yet, she lived in Georgia throughout her childhood. This seems somewhat harsh to me. However, these actions make sense: These groups are very tight-knit and exclusive. They seem to have the goal of elevating their (for, obviously, lack of a better word) “native-ness,” such that anyone not from their native land is considered an intruder.

Ch. 5

Chapter 5 describes the struggle of Harlem residents to achieve a degree of political autonomy. Harlem had a tense political atmosphere because of a structure based on alliances and political antagonisms. Politics were based on a system of patronage. Some people (like Ferdinand Q. Morton) were able to rise to positions high enough to improve the political position of blacks. However, they made little progress in these positions. There was eventually a shift in Harlem from the Republicans to the Democrats. This was because the native black leadership of the Republican Party was not particularly welcoming of foreign-born blacks. Some immigrant and native blacks cooperated with each other to gain recognition for their race. They preferred racial solidarity to ethnic solidarity. There was a greater awareness of Harlem’s diversity, particularly because there were more Caribbean people visible on the streets. There was also a growth of new business centered on the import and export of Caribbean products as well as more ethnic-based organizations. In the post-war years, there was a negative view of foreign-born blacks by native blacks. This may have been the result of a growing tide of nativism during and after World War I as well as the Red Scare. Not many (“a negligible number” of) Caribbean immigrants were qualified to vote. Citizenship was often viewed practically, as a means of improving one’s economic and social standing. Another reason is that the Caribbean immigrant felt right at home here in the United States with the presence of people from his/her own home country. Thus, naturalization was also seen as unnecessary and meant very little to most. Despite this, some already-naturalized professionals made progress in Harlem’s political system. For example, they succeeded in integrating the district clubs. However, Harlem’s subordinate political position contributed to tense relations between native-born and immigrant blacks. This was reinforced by a 1917 redistricting that weakened Harlem even more.

I was surprised by how tense relations were between black Republicans and Democrats:

“During local political campaigns, mobs in San Juan Hill knocked Tammany Hall supporters from their stepladders and wagons, pelted some with rotten cabbage and fruit, and ran others from the street corners” (77).

Although this all seemed a little to extreme to me, it serves to highlight the animosity that many blacks felt toward each other. Maybe, it was attributed to feelings of betrayal considering the initial emphasis on racial solidarity. Did they feel betrayed by the fact that some of their “own” defected to the other party?

However, later in the post-war years, we see shifts toward the other end in terms of racial solidarity:

“There was a causal connection between the American attitude toward foreigners in general and the American Negro’s attitude toward the West Indian Negro” (81).

Now, it seems that the focus is on ethnic solidarity rather than racial. When speaking about Marcus Garvey, critics focused on his “intrusive foreign status” (81). This nativist attitude may have stemmed, not from fear but, from the notion that immigrant blacks were taking away native blacks’ opportunities for advancement.

Ch. 7

Chapter 7 talks about Marcus Garvey and the race versus ethnicity issue that surrounded his activities. Garvey initially came to America to raise funds for an educational institute. However, he eventually ended up establishing an organization called the Universal Negro Improvement Association (or UNIA) in Harlem. He established this organization to provide a channel for improvement for blacks. Garvey himself was acknowledged by many to be an excellent orator, well-known for his “militant discourse.” The Negro World was one of the UNIA’s publications. It was self-supporting and hired numerous black workers in Harlem in a time where these same people could not get any jobs. However, critics of Garvey used his West Indian/non-U.S. citizen status against him. For example, W.E.B. du Bois described the UNIA as a “West Indian movement.” Numerous government departments sought for an excuse to imprison and/or deport him. The criticism of Garvey became so sharp that some in the black press resorted to name-calling and derogatory remarks. This grew even more after Garvey’s meeting with the Ku Klux Klan, an organization that stirred negative emotions in the African-American community. Garvey was eventually imprisoned on a single count of mail fraud; however, many (including his harshest critics) believed that this was too severe a penalty for so simple a charge. He was eventually deported back to Jamaica in 1927.

I am surprised at the lengths that the government went through to have Garvey arrested. Having informants following him and tracking his every move seems a little too extreme. However, it seems that this was (in the eyes of the government) the sensible thing to do, given his reputation for “militant discourse.” It seems that he was seen as a threat to the stability of the country and to some people’s power. Maybe there was fear of revolution among blacks? I understand Garvey’s slogan of “Back to Africa.” He may have been trying to promote unity using common roots. However, it seemed to backfire as it instead divided many people.

Speaking of this division, I was also surprised at how the issue surrounding Garvey divided people along ethnic lines. Originally, we saw an emphasis on racial solidarity. However, it seems that the issue with Garvey made this seemingly nonexistent. With all the name-calling and bickering, I found it hard to believe that there was once a semblance of racial solidarity.

Ch. 9

Chapter 9 describes what was considered an illegal activity yet has been regarded as a social phenomenon in early-1900s Harlem: the “numbers” or “policy” game. In this game, the player took a chance that they could pick a series of three digits that would match the same set of three numbers appearing anywhere (most likely, a combination of the win, place, and show bets at a local racetrack). The player got a “hit” if this set appeared at the agreed-upon location. The heads of the numbers operation (the bankers) were in a position to make good money because hits were relatively rare. However, the bankers actually invested the money they received into Harlem property, charities, and other ventures. This was because those betting expected the bankers to put the money into a worthwhile cause. The game was banned in 1901 but was revitalized around 1914 by immigrants from Cuba and Central America, where the game was popular. Its popularity was grounded in poor economic conditions in Harlem. The thought of winning a huge sum of money compelled many to play. Some of the larger bankers, like Stephanie St. Claire and Casper Holstein, were huge economic, social, and political forces in Harlem. In the press, there was inconsistency in reporting about numbers (for example, in using the names of bankers in articles). It is also worth mentioning that white bankers were attacked freely. In the end, however, it seems that numbers only helped the black bankers, as they received all the money and were the only ones who held enough influence in the community.

Numbers reminds me of today’s lottery. People pick a series of numbers in the hopes that the numbers will be drawn. However, few win because (like numbers) the “chances of winning are [very slight]” (138). People who play put in millions of dollars into lottery tickets, only to never get any of it back. The only difference between today’s lottery and numbers is that today’s lottery is legal and more centralized. This was a comparison that came to my mind while I was reading. I was surprised by the similarities that I thought of.

The seriousness (and sometimes outlandishness) of the numbers game was something that struck me. The author mentioned that a banker by the name of Panama Francis “kept his money in nail kegs and suitcases in a cellar guarded by three Belgian police dogs” (139). It is also mentioned that the money he received as a banker enabled him to loan “the government of Grenada $500,000, on which he collected 4 percent interest” (139).

While I was reading this, another thought came into my head: We don’t usually consider people participating in illegal rings as having “unselfish generosity” (144). To me, numbers seems different from any other illegal activity I have studied in history. Here, the ultimate goal of those controlling it is positive. The bankers contribute their money toward worthwhile causes. We have St. Clair with her crusades against police harassment and brutality and Holstein with his generosity toward many causes, including the arts. I thought that this was noteworthy given the negative reputation that people running illegal activities have.

Ch. 10

Chapter 10 discusses the role writers played in recounting and even affecting intraracial relations in Harlem. Much of the writing during this period focused on the experiences of various groups, including those of immigrants. Some focused on forms of protest in response to various community matters. Others (like Claude McKay) focused on race consciousness and identity. Still, others (like Rudolph Fisher focused on stereotypes surrounding black immigrants. Immigrants also made many contributions to a “New Negro” literary Renaissance. Some of these writers included George Reginald Margetson, Eulalie Spence, and Amy Ashwood Garvey. Claud McKay (like some others) was connected to the press through their writings in numerous publications. J.A. Rogers emphasized black history in his writings, especially in his book, From Superman to Man. Amy Jacques-Garvey subscribed to the feminism of the era, demanding equal opportunity for women. Thus, the writings of the era not only focused on race issues but also the diversity of the time as well as protests for equal rights.

It was stated that, in McKay’s Home to Harlem, the main character realized that his identity “has been redefined for him by his fellow blacks as well as by white Americans” (151). To me, this does not only apply to black immigrants of the era but also to all immigrants of any era. There is a certain identity (i.e. stereotype) that an immigrant from a particular place is expected to subscribe to. Although this expectation was more open in the past, I believe that it still exists today albeit subconsciously in the minds of people.

It was stated that immigrant columnist Edgar M. Grey wrote a piece called “Dr. Pickens Is Too Black” to protest color divisions among African-Americans. Although the title would be considered (very) crude humor today, it was certainly a serious issue back then. I was shocked by the title when I first saw it. (I actually read it twice to make sure I read it correctly.) However, this reaction is due in part to the fact that if this were written today, it would ignite a firestorm of controversy. However, back when it was written, it seems to have been acceptable and appropriate for the issue Grey was discussing.

Ch. 11

The author uses chapter 11 to give the reader a summary of the findings presented throughout the book: all the way from the influx of Caribbean immigrants in Harlem to Harlem politics to the writings of the New Negro. The author says that although interactions between native blacks and foreign-born blacks did not necessarily lead to integration between the two groups, it did serve to provide a platform for the exchange of ideas and institutions that made Harlem a center for blacks.

Throughout the book, I noticed several ideas that were being repeated, especially that of kinship networks. It served to show how the experiences of both native and immigrant blacks paralleled each other in some way or another. Native-born and immigrant blacks are not entirely different from each other. They have shared the same experiences and share even the same roots. It is true that there has not been a true integration of both groups, and there is still some animosity. However, it can be said that the interactions of both of these groups with each other have led to a positive exchange of ideas that has profoundly changed the dynamics of their relationship.

Overall, I was pleased with this book. The author presented the arguments and evidence in a concise and interesting manner. I appreciated the use of stories to help the reader visualize some of the points that were made and the events that occurred. I also liked how each individual topic was separated into its own chapter instead a single time period per chapter (like in other history-related books). I believe that this allowed the reader to concentrate on one topic per chapter and learn the details associated with it rather than be confused by a hodgepodge of topics per chapter. In conclusion, I really enjoyed this book.

As the book progressed, Blood Relations begins to take a deeper look into the political, economic and social status of African-Americans and Caribbean people living in Harlem. Ch 4 showed the power that churches, benevolent societies and fraternal orders had. Political mobility began with the church because at the time darker skinned men and especially women were not allowed to have a large say in politics. I thought it was interesting to see the development of the residents in Harlem as they came together to push for having a political voice to represent their interests. Amongst the differences they faced, it marked a transition and represented the growing power of the community.

Marcus Garvey emerged as a great voice in the ’20’s in Harlem. I personally don’t recall learning about him previously, but I found his ideas (even though a bit radical) to be very interesting. Ch 7 explored his push for this “back to Africa” idea, which in my opinion made sense logically but would fail practically speaking. The idea of bringing everyone of African decent back together to live on their own terms and rise as a powerful country is great and very gripping but I think it divided the people. Such a radical movement will get strong agreement or disagreement and in his case, along with the influence from the government, Garvey was not able to get enough momentum. As we discussed in class, Africa-Americans and West Indians, for example, had different connections to Africa and generally it was distant and greatly a part of the past. That is where his plan generally failed, in my opinion. I think a lot of people would not be so willing to immigrate again, especially to a place that was not as industrialized and could have resulted in no job opportunities. Many people wouldn’t want to leave, unless they had been greatly motivated in being pioneers and starting a great change, or if their situation was extremely poor in NYC.

Chapter 9, as the title “The Underground Entrepreneur” suggests, discusses the “numbers playing game” which I thought was interesting. I found it to be a small uniting force amongst the residents of Harlem and later on others who played the game. I liked how the author introduced the big name bankers and entrepreneurs such as Pompez, and St.Clair.  I thought it unified people by finding a common ground regardless of class and status. It was also a clever way to make money for the bankers, which led to their accumulation  of thousands of dollars, and even millions, which led to issues with gangs but also led to charitable donations.

The issue of separation amongst different black immigrants, which was mentioned earlier in the book, was further developed in Ch 10. I found it a little sad that different ethnic groups used propaganda and others were taught to discriminate. However, the differences did contribute to great literature and the Harlem Renaissance.

The last six chapters of Blood Relations: Caribbean Immigrants and the Harlem Community, 1900-1930, written by Irma Watkins-Owens, were very interesting and filled me in on many things that I did not know about the history of Harlem. Chapter 4 talked about how the evolving Harlem community was comprised of a myriad of social networks that were linked together by churches, benevolent and fraternal societies and lodges. These social institutions played a significant role in helping Caribbean and Southern immigrants become assimilated into New York City lifestyle during the early part of the twentieth century. Many times black clergymen and society leaders were responsible for making the Caribbean immigrants in their congregations feel more at home. They were links between native and immigrant blacks. Chapter 5 discussed the tensions that arose within the Harlem community based on differing political ideologies. The relationship between immigrants from the Caribbean and the South and native African Americans was not the best. African Americans were envious of West Indian immigrants because of the appeal they had to white people. West Indians were viewed as foreign and radical by African Americans. They did not want anything to do with West Indian immigrants and hated the fact that people thought that African Americans and West Indian immigrants fell in the same category of people. Chapter 7 focuses on Marcus Garvey, a Jamaican leader who caused a spur in the Harlem community by advocating for a strong, united African community that would create a powerful, industrialized, and advanced society in Africa. He encouraged his followers to move back to Africa. Chapter 9 talks about the organization and the importance of the numbers game in Harlem’s economy. Lastly, chapters 10 and 11 tie the content of the book together by discussing the effects that Caribbean immigrants had in Harlem society.

Religion played an important role in the lives of the Caribbean immigrants in Harlem. Practicing their faith was one of the most common ways that Caribbean immigrants maintained a link with their native countries. These immigrants introduced their own denominations to the Harlem community (and American society). Caribbean immigrant churches perpetuated island traditions. This made the assimilation process easier for Caribbean immigrants. However, we must also take into consideration the effect that the interaction between New York City native blacks and immigrants blacks had on services. The manner in which most black Americans conducted their religious services broadened the cultural experience of some immigrants used to the more Anglican and Catholic services. In other words, many Caribbean immigrants affiliated themselves with black churches because of the way the faithful conducted their religious services. Black churches have an interesting and unique charisma that more traditional denominations like the Catholic Church tend to lack. They appeal to the culture and traditions that black people have. Social organizations, religious institutions, a collective economy amongst immigrants and kin networks all allowed black immigrants to adapt to a new environment. They provided immigrants with social, moral and economic support, three of the most important types of support that a person who is suffering needs and can receive. There were many organizations that helped immigrants make progress in life. Churches and other social institutions often served as places where native blacks and immigrants got together and shared cultures and traditions. However, I must also agree with Watkins-Owens when she says that, “Churches, benevolents, and fraternal orders were also class- and gender-identified institutions”(74). In other words these social and religious institutions served both to unite and divide the different groups within the Harlem community.

Chapter 5 focuses on the political side of Harlem and the struggles for its autonomy. Harlem was faced with a lot of internal “conflict” between immigrants and natives. But it also did not have a voice in the politics of the city, the state or the nation. There was no black representation in government. Between 1900 and 1930, immigrants and native blacks decided to take action to solve this. However, there were many occasions where the immigrants and black natives did not reach a consensus and thus there were several disputes between both groups. During this time period, the control of local political clubs was largely restricted to upper class people in Harlem, both native born and immigrant. The regular political parties were not outlets for divergent political ideas. If people wanted to mobilize themselves in the political arena they needed to have initiative and contacts. Political leaders were often financially secured and Americanized. Thus many of them did not even know what issues plagued the lives of newly arrived immigrants who were trying to adapt themselves to a new lifestyle. However, despite the growing number of black elected officials in Harlem, neither black immigrants nor black natives benefitted from this. No community-improvement projects were created to aid Harlem. Overcrowded conditions, inadequate health care, deportations, high rents, dilapidated rat- and roach-infested housing, police brutality, prostitution and racketeering continued to be some of the main problems in Harlem. Political institutions like Tammany Hall were created. They advocated for the naturalization of Caribbean immigrants so that they could vote. However, Tammany Hall was corrupted and did not put Harlem residents’ requests before theirs. They wanted support from immigrants so that they could continue to become more powerful.

Chapter 7 focuses on the life of Marcus Garvey and his impact in Harlem. He was of Jamaican descent and was deported back to Jamaica technically because of mail fraud. However, in reality U.S. officials deported him because he was considered dangerous to the American government. He supported creating a strong, united, and powerful African community that would work together to create an economically and politically powerful African industrial empire. His dream was for all people of African descent throughout the world to move back to Africa and develop a society that would be powerful enough to compete with other powers like Europe and the United States. He convinced many blacks by telling them that the white man denies them many rights. He was very explicit about what basic human rights were denied and then afterwards motivated people to agree with him by saying that in the African society that he would lead, all would be equal. No disparity would exist. However, as we discussed in class, many socioeconomic disparities existed amongst people of African descent. Some of these disparities were created because not everyone grows up in circumstances that allow them to become people with important and influential roles. Lack of money, lack of social stability within the family unit, and many other things that come from living in a specific environment creates disparity. The idea of physical appearance also comes into play. Garvey wanted the African/black community in Harlem to have their own economy, press, political organization, jobs and other things so that the community could gain enough strength and power to move back to Africa. He also stressed racial purity, disagreeing with the idea of black people marrying people of other races. I found his meeting with Ku Klux Klan very odd but understandable. Like Professor Lutton said in class, he must have admired them for their advocacy of racial purity. But I thought that his idea that all white people deep down were members of the KKK is crazy. I understand that as dark-skinned human beings living during that time period him and his followers must have had many terrible experiences with white racists, but he took it too far. Although I do not agree with his ideas at all and know for sure that this would never have been possible, I do understand why he would take this stance in the first place. Like Dr. King advocated for the idea of integration, Garvey advocated for the idea of moving back to Africa and creating an advanced society. At the end of the day, acts of racism on behalf of many whites (causing a lot of tension) must have been terrible to experience. White Americans feared that his preaching and advocacy would cause turmoil in American society because black people would rebel against the social norm. So in the end he was sent back to Jamaica.

Chapter 9, “The Underground Entrepreneur,” discusses the organization and the importance of the numbers game in Harlem’s community. This game sustained an underground economy, which allowed for the social mobility and the employment of many people in Harlem. Bankers played a very important role in financing many community projects. These were the people that others went to when they had an issue. Usually when people have problems with their society they go to the government. But as we read in the previous chapters, black elected officials often cared more about gaining prestige and power than actually helping out their communities. Many times when a banker became extremely successful economically, he would give back to the community by aiding those who needed it the most. Holstein was one of these bankers. He made a lot of money from numbers and decided to give back to the community. He gave to the poor and needy and even supported organizations that worked for the bettering of Harlem. Holstein, along with other benevolent bankers, was respected by the community as race people. Watkins-Owens also describes how even after black bankers had been exposed and harassed by city authorities, they were still respected by the black community. Madame Stephanie St. Clair is an excellent example of this. She fought the penetration of white gangsters into the Harlem numbers business and the rampant police corruption. Many Harlem residents viewed her with so much admiration. She was persistent at demonstrating how unfair the system was to blacks. Interestingly enough, numbers playing was not limited to the working or elite classes of people. People from all social classes and stages in life participated. It was a way of getting money that working at the menial jobs available to the blacks could not compare. The illegality of playing numbers did not stop people from playing it. This shows how desperate many were to make ends meet.

Chapters 10 and 11 discuss the overall impact that Caribbean immigrants had in Harlem. Chapter 10 focuses on artists, poets and writers whose art impacted Harlem culture. One of the poets Watkins-Owens mentions is Claude McKay. His writing portrayed the immigrant experience in New York City. McKay’s point of view is very interesting and I am sure that it appeals to many immigrants. He tries to get at the idea that although New York City (and the U.S.) is a place full of race issues, it ultimately is the place where people from all over the world could go to make progress in life. It is the land of opportunity. Although he has the optimistic view of an immigrant, McKay still reveals many of the issues that immigrants encounter when they migrate to New York City. Chapter 10 also talks about the role the press had in Harlem. It is very important to note that the press spread many ideas throughout the community and gathered people together as one in many occasions to advocate or fight against a certain idea or notion. The reality is that Caribbean immigrants played a huge role in the shaping of twentieth century New York. The immigration of foreigners to the U.S. has allowed Americans, especially those residing in multiculturalist cities to be open-minded and accepting of people from different cultures.

Watkins-Owens sets out to prove that Harlem is simply not a “black” area, which should not be only known for its “Renaissance” of music and literature. She wishes to uncover Harlem’s diverse ethnic backgrounds and its development as a multi-faceted society throughout time, with focus on immigration  from the West Indies and their integration into American society. She leaves cultural achievements aside, and discusses  political, economical, and social problems ( like immigration policies, housing problems, limited occupational opportunities, and conflicts with African Americans) instead. Although the West Indie population was relatively small at that time, in comparison with other immigrant/ native groups, it still left a decisive impact on the formation of Harlem and American views on race. She also continuously narrows down her focus onto the women of the West Indies, so in a way her book also researches the feminism.

Before the creation of Harlem, Watkin- Owens tracks the immigrant movement from the West- Indies during the late 1800’s and early 1900’s. Colonialism forced the Caribbean people out of their homes because colonialists had claimed profitable land for themselves. In the beginning, they moved only between islands, then unto the Americas- specifically the Panama Canal. I found this to be one of the most interesting bits of information so far. I know about the Panama Canal since it is such a massive turning point in American history because it expedited trade and shows America’s exercise of power in a foreign country. The project was a huge undertaking, which involved influx of various peoples in its making. I had never realized that a majority of the labor was done by Caribbean people. I knew Chinese and Irish immigrants work to build the First transcontinental Railroad, so how I did I not know who built the Panama Canal- another landmark construction? I also find it appropriate how these low wage workers would use their “Panama Silver” to gain access to America, and how their work in the Panama Canal would act as an introductory course to American Society (“Jim Crow’). And the United Fruit Company, such a sweet sounding, benevolent name, acted as a monopoly of exporting Caribbean labor when it was no longer required in Panama. I find also find it interesting when her work focuses on women’s struggles and how women fought to correct/help it. Respect those women who saw girls lured away from their homes with false promises, then responded by making the White Rose Mission and the Welcome Stranger Committee to help empower girls. Complex immigration policies already made it difficult for women to improve their lives and needed support of men/ family.

“On to Harlem”- how cool learning how my school’s neighborhood was built. Apparently, its all thanks to a savvy realtor named Payne who would exploit a rivalry between landlords. One apartment building with black residents would soon become the entire neighborhood, as former inhabitants moved out. Harlem would soon become the draw for “elite” blacks, like W.E.B Du Bois, and became the place to be. Caribbean immigrants from San Juan Hill forged Harlem with native blacks, but they did not truly blend together. Americans had a better view of Caribbean people then native black, seen as harder working, “Model” immigrant. Caribbean people also distanced, and differentiated themselves from native blacks and vice versa. Caribbean immigrants are highly devoted to forming and building their own community. Since many people could not afford to own a home, there were many lodgers and they functioned on a form of loyalty credit. They strove to rise in society because most were educated, but they were mostly delegated to lower leveled jobs.

While reading through the first three chapters of Blood Relations I kept finding myself very surprised. During our first couple of class meetings, we placed a large focus on Assimilation. Without going into any specific definitions or examples, we focused mainly on the idea of immigrants “sacrificing” some of their cultural identity to adapt to the new, blooming culture of America. Many earlier immigrants were forced to throw away their home world traditions so they can be looked upon as actual citizens. Fast forwarding to Harlem in the early twentieth century, there seems to be a shift in this ideology. Many of the immigrants coming from the Caribbean Islands tried to do as much as they could to differentiate themselves from native black Americans. In fact, many even kept their native language or learned new ones just so they wouldn’t be piled into a broad category of second-class citizens. In Chapter 1, a small story was given on how a train conductor had asked a dark skinned Cuban immigrant to move to a Jim Crow train car. Once the conductor had heard the Cuban man speak Spanish though, he simply punched his ticket and “ ‘treated him just as he did the other passengers in the car.’ ” I thought this was pretty ironic; a racist system such as the one defined by the Jim Crow laws gave exceptions to dark-skinned peoples as long as they spoke a different language.

A lot of my confusion concerning the whole idea of Caribbean immigrants separating themselves from black Americans began to fade as I read through chapter 2. It became pretty clear, pretty fast, why Caribbean immigrants would do this. These new immigrants coming from a variety of different islands and countries were immediately perceived as superior to black Americans. Coming from colonies that were originally founded by European countries added credibility to this idea but most of the incoming immigrants came in with something to prove. Many Caribbean men, and surprising for the time, women, had some sort of formal education up to and sometimes exceeding the college level. This made them well more educated than the average black southerner who migrated from the North. Even those immigrants who weren’t as educated arrived with redeeming skills. Large portions of Caribbean immigrants were artisans. That is, they excelled in a certain skill that they used to provide for their family and themselves. Some of these skilled workers included cobblers, tailors and craftsmen. Even though the job market was very limited, Caribbean immigrants had a less difficult time finding suitable work. Women, who usually weren’t artisans, had a somewhat easy time finding work in other people’s homes.

Throughout my reading, one thing that I though about a lot was how was native black Americans in Harlem reacting to this whole situation. Were they resentful of Caribbean immigrants who turned their nose up at them? Or were they impressed and motivated to better themselves? I didn’t really come to an answer for this question, but I hope to find some sort of one in my further reading.

It’s interesting to see how discrimination against social groups assumes a different guise when talking about the Black community in New York City. It’s a strange thought to think that America’s historically most discriminated group of people, when put in the position of receiving immigrants into their community, segregate themselves among ethnic lines. Black Americans living in Harlem weren’t crazy about hordes of Caribbean immigrants who tried to integrate themselves into American society at the turn of the 20th century. In a way it makes sense, look at every wave of immigration that this country has ever had. White protestants didn’t care much for the Irish because of their willingness to work for lower wages (and also the predominance of Catholicism among the group). Black Americans didn’t care much for Caribbean immigrants for similar reasons, minus the Catholicism of course. People like to look out for their own and tend to react with hostility when confronted with people, who they construe as different, try and integrate themselves into a community in which they are not a majority.

Not only does this constitute the highest form of hypocrisy, this hostility did nothing to foster a sense of community among people who, by all means, shared a very similar standard of living. The truth of the matter is, white people didn’t see a difference between the myriad shades of brown that were now populating Harlem. Pretty much everyone who wasn’t a white anglosaxon protestant was looked down upon in one way or another. While it is true that those who were heard speaking a foreign language such as Spanish and French received concessions and much more leeway to maneuver about Americas rigid early 20th century social ladder, people who made the trip from the Caribbean to the United States often suffered greatly during their travels. For example, only white workers stationed at the Panama Canal during its construction were paid in gold, the rest be them Haitian, Jamaican, or Guyanese were all forced to live in the same packed tenement buildings and were only paid in Panamanian Silver coins. Living off subsistence wages the process of making enough money to simultaneously send remittances to their family back home and pay for boat fare to America was a challenge of the highest caliber.

Without a doubt the surge in Caribbean immigration caused massive social change within Manhattan. With the help of certain beneficiary groups those who came here from the Caribbean eventually managed to carve themselves out a niche in the city despite the adversity they faced from all sides. Coupled with all the Black Americans who found themselves pushed north because of rising cost of living downtown these two very distinct groups of people managed to coalesce into the multi-ethnic neighborhood of Harlem, in the process giving the neighborhood an incredibly distinct feel.

The Harlem community from 1900-1930 has been influenced by various intellectual figures, drastic changes in the world,  and the influx of a new ethnicity, Afro-Caribbeans. Harlem has transitioned from being a heavily white populated environment to a diverse black community.

The start of the transition in Harlem was influenced by overbuilding in the 1890s.  African American real estate agents for example, Philip Payton persuaded white landlords in Harlem to accept black tenants. Also, with the construction of Penn Station, apartments doubled its rent in central Manhattan. Places like San Juan Hill, pushed black tenants out due to the increase in rent. Thus, these tenants found a place to live in Harlem. Harlem also attracted various intellectual figures such as W.E.B. Du Bois. James Weldon Johnson, and Claude Mckay. Du Bois at this time viewed the Caribbean immigrants of possessing traits of the “representative negro.” Some of the these traits included hard work and independence. This raised tension between native born African Americans and Caribbean immigrants. An interesting fact was that due to the the vast immigration of foreigners to America, sometimes black American citizens could avoid the Jim Crow laws if they were mistaken for being foreign born.

Societies in the Caribbean was different from society in America. In the Caribbean, although the elite circle consisted of mostly educated whites, dark skinned people could still have an influence. The requirements was having an education or owning property.This is much different from America because even if someone had an education, their skin color would decide their fate. The Caribbean also had a heterogeneous society because of the import of Asian indentured laborers. These Asian-Caribbeans eventually moved to Harlem with their neighbors, Afro-Caribbeans.

During the years 1904 to 1914, the United States took over the Panama Canal project and this led to the immigration of the Caribbean people to Panama for work. The Panama Canal project had a major influence on the immigration of the Caribbean people to the U.S because caribbean immigrants used Panama money to bring their families to the U.S. What I found interesting was that in Panama even though the Panama Canal offered a lot of labor opportunities, people were actually living in worse conditions than before. The Jim Crow laws still applied, which segregated the blacks and whites. The darker skinned people were also paid less regardless of their skill level. For example, black employees were paid in Panamanian silver balboas while white employees were paid in gold balboas. Another aspect of the influence of Caribbeans in Panama was women. Women were persuaded to emigrate by the Isthmian Canal Commission (ICC). The ICC employed black women for house jobs such as being servants. I found it strange how the Caribbean women were preferred over Panamanians.

After the opening of the Panama Canal, more Caribbean laborers were influenced to Central American countries for work. However, due to World World I, working conditions deteriorated and emigration was focused on the U.S. That is how the Panama Canal project caused the Caribbean people to eventually move into Harlem. There were also programs such as the Victoria Emigration Society which helped women in Barbados by giving them money for emigrating.

“On to Harlem,” Philip and Maggie Payton’s purchase of the Victorian Gothic rowhouse transformed Harlem from being populated with Irish and Germans to becoming a black community. The vast majority of black migration has caused Harlem to become “a city within the City of New York.” Harlem was furthered expanded by the Caribbean benevolent societies which raised money to purchase three to four story brownstones. Other organizations such as the New York Colored Mission aided immigrants by helping them find work.

In conclusion, Harlem transformed into a black community because of the influence of certain individuals and the immigration of the Caribbean people to the U.S. I was surprised to learn about how other events in the world such as the building of the Panama Canal or World War I, can contribute to being a major factor in the development of communities. Overall, the Caribbean people played a major role in the transformation of Harlem because of their contribution in making Harlem a culturally diverse community.

The first three chapters of Blood Relations: Caribbean Immigrants and the Harlem Community, 1900-1930, written by Irma Watkins-Owens, were very interesting and helped me gain knowledge about the history behind the formation of the Harlem community. I am not afraid to admit that before attending this class, I did not know that there were many people of Caribbean descent living in Harlem. Because of skin color and other traits that I stereotypically attribute to African Americans, I thought most of the people in Harlem were African American. This book has opened up my mind and it has also made me realize that although immigrants in America come from diverse political, socioeconomic and religious backgrounds, what they all share in common is the American Dream. In her book, Watkins-Owens analyzes the emergence of Harlem’s black community during the first three decades of the twentieth century by looking at the relationship between West Indian immigrants and American-born southern immigrants. Many times this relationship was full of tensions. West Indian immigrants were put in a higher social class than African Americans because of their work ethnic and the fact that they could speak a different language. This angered African Americans because they believed that they should be placed in a higher position in society because of the amount of time that their race lived in the U.S. West Indian immigrants were treated better just because they were born in a different place. Watkins-Owens also goes back to the beginning and explains why people from the Caribbean left their homelands and migrated to the U.S. What interested me the most out of these three chapters in the book is the role women and institutions, such as the church, had in helping Caribbean immigrants assimilate into American society.

Chapter 1 provides an in-depth explanation of the intraracial ethnicity in Harlem. I found it very interesting to read that Harlem used to be a mostly white community. Since I am living in a time period where Harlem is predominantly black, I always ignorantly believed that it was inhabited by black people. However, due to overcrowding in the tenements in downtown Manhattan, the construction of subway stations and other housing issues, African Americans were pushed towards uptown Manhattan. The movement of African Americans to Harlem created a huge change in society. Initially white tenants and landlords were upset and often times resisted this “invasion” but because of ambitious real estate agents like Payton, they eventually succumbed. Like my group discussed in class on Tuesday, more and more African Americans moved to Harlem because they found people with their same ways of thinking, their same identity, their same socioeconomic struggles and their same religion. Black Caribbean immigrants also moved to Harlem because it became such a desirable community full of people from all stages in life, social classes and with different educations. However, all of this movement spurred many issues within the community, “How would white American society perceive foreign blacks? Would black foreigners become allies with black Americans in the great American race struggle? And how would native blacks and their leaders react to a new expanding ethnic and nonracial dimension to community life?” (4). These questions were very important and were issues that caused tensions to form between foreign blacks and native blacks. Like I mentioned before, many native blacks were upset at the fact that foreigners were treated better because they could speak a second language, they were born somewhere else and their work ethnic was deemed better by the white community. At one point, foreign blacks were seen as the “model minority.” This motivated some native blacks to try and imitate the foreigners, but also caused many tensions.

Chapter 1 also discusses how myriad kinship and community networks aided both Caribbean and Southern immigrants by directing them towards employment and housing. These networks are very important because they made the lives of these immigrants a little bit easier. I may be wrong when I say this, but I do not see this for immigrants today. Many come to this country illegally and have to spend a lot of time struggling till they get themselves together. The support that may exist today is not the same as the support that the immigrants in the past received from their fellow compatriots. Many southerners and later on Caribbean people formed groups and organizations that assisted those who recently arrived to the U.S. to adjust to the system and promoted advancement. Religion also played a huge role in the adjustment of immigrants both from the Caribbean and from the southern states. Many used the kerygma as a way of helping them get through their struggles. The idea that an omnipotent being exists and is always looking after his people provided many immigrants with the courage to confront the problems they had. Many immigrants also introduced entirely new denominations of churches that were based on Caribbean culture and way of thinking. The formation of these new sects made Caribbean people feel more at home. It allowed them to express their culture and their beliefs in a god.

Chapter 2 is very interesting because it discusses the reason why Caribbean immigration to the United States started. According to the second chapter, Caribbean migration can be categorized in several phases. Movements that occurred between 1835 and 1885 were between islands. Once the black Caribbean people were freed from slavery they had to look for work. The only available work during that time was in the plantations. So people in the Caribbean immigrated to islands where there was work. This migration within the islands created diversity in each island because it spread different cultural, social, and sometimes even political ideas throughout the different areas. Each island had its own set of complex social dynamics. The fact that many islands in the Caribbean used to be English, French and/or Spanish colonies also added on to the diversity and uniqueness of each one. Colonization has many effects on the colonized. In the Caribbean, class status and economic mobility were essential to achieving recognition in the environment. This yearning to be successful encouraged migration of people. Initially, Caribbean people immigrated to islands where people thrived economically. However, once all the opportunities were taken, people decided to immigrate to the U.S.

The Panama Canal Project was heavily discussed in chapter 2. It was sort of the first project that incentivized people from the Caribbean to begin to immigrate out of their homelands. During the early years of the twentieth century, many people left the Caribbean to Panama in search of work. The Panama Canal became the first opportunity to thrive economically. However, the Caribbean immigrants quickly discovered that working on this canal would not yield them much revenue. The workers got paid very little for doing large amounts of work. Another discouraging notion with regards to the project was that workers were segregated according to skin color. White people who worked on the canal got paid in gold and received free housing. Black immigrants were paid in silver and had to find their own housing. Working conditions were also not good and many had to risk their lives for little pay. However, it is interesting to note that in order to deal with all the pain and anguish caused by this disappointment, Caribbean immigrants decided to develop their own traditions and created important social institutions as new permanent communities were created. The Church was the most important institution for these immigrants. Here we see once more how important religion was to Caribbean immigrants. The creation of communities made up of Caribbean immigrants had effects on Panama. Before reading this book, I always wondered why some foods, music and traditions from Panama were similar to those of some islands in the Caribbean. Now I understand why.

The exploitation of Caribbean immigrant women in Panama is also highly significant. I never knew that they suffered that much. In the book, Watkins-Owens says that many Caribbean women were lured to Panama by bogus agents offering them good jobs and then forced into prostitution. Had I not read this book, I would never have associated Panama Canal construction with prostitution. Something else that I found interesting was the important role that the United Fruit Company had during the time period. It virtually controlled the Caribbean labor market and had an impact on the lives of workers and their families all over the Caribbean. It offered low waged jobs to Caribbean people who did not have any other options but to accept and be exploited. Eventually, Caribbean people started to immigrate to the United States (specifically Harlem, NYC) in search of new jobs. The United States was seen as the dominant economic force of the Western Hemisphere, which led to the emigration of people from the West Indies. On a side note, this idea is still present in the minds of people from all over the world today. I have family members who want to immigrate to New York City and make their lives better. Even though for those of us who live here, New York City has many issues and problems that are yet to be solved, for those who live in other countries, this city is seen as a place where their dreams and wishes can come true.

The creation of family networks is another interesting part of Caribbean immigration and played a huge role in the formation of such a strong and united immigrant community within Harlem. Many times, people would immigrate to the United States, spend months or sometimes years working and saving up money to bring other family members to New York to live with them. Pregnant women would bring their little sisters to live with them so that the little sisters could help take care of them. The fact that immigrants kept in touch with family members back home also surprised me. Today, it is easier to keep in touch with loved ones in other countries because of the advancements in technology. It is amazing how back then, Caribbean immigrants would send packaged food, money and letters on a weekly basis and receive food from back home and letters in return. This shows me that the familial ties were very strong. But what I find very upsetting is the fact that all these people wanted was to make their lives better and when they came to the United States they confronted so much racism from most whites and had to deal with hatred from African Americans. I agree with Maida Springer when she says, “We were all strangers. The black American, the black foreigner, and we did not like one another, and the white foreigner liked us less and the white American hated all of us” (29). Although Caribbean people were thought of as higher than black Americans, they were still on the lower end of the social class hierarchal structure. This quote generalizes the tensions that existed in New York during that time period. However, it is interesting to see how over time, African Americans and descendants of Caribbean immigrants were able to ease some of these tensions and get along.

Chapter 3 provides a lot of information with regards to the evolution of Harlem from a white-based community to a predominantly black community. It is interesting how at one point, the word Harlem had become synonymous with black culture and black lifestyle in Manhattan. Many factors contributed to this change. As mentioned earlier, being “kicked out” of downtown Manhattan and other areas due to renovation and construction of new places was a huge factor for this movement. This reason reminds me of what is happening today with Dominicans who live in Harlem. Because of gentrification and rent increases, many are being kicked out of where they live and consequently are moving to the southern part of the Bronx. But anyways, it is important to note that the communities that surrounded Harlem were made up of Russian and Italian immigrants. Philip A. Payton and his wife, Maggie Payton played an important role in this movement of native blacks and black immigrants to Harlem. Since he was a real estate broker, he worked with many white landlords to allow black people to move into their properties. He, without doubt, assisted many people who otherwise would not have had a home. Little by little white people moved out of the area and so black people became owners of many houses and apartments and leased them to other black people, which expanded Harlem’s black population even more. The Church played a huge role in this area as well, by collecting money to buy houses for black immigrants. Some black people even created organizations such as the White Rose Mission, which were aimed at providing immigrants with temporary housing and employment. What’s even more interesting is how many immigrants worked together to make their lives better. They would pool their money to buy houses and increase the amount of houses available to black immigrants.

The first three chapters of this book have caught my attention. There are so many topics that I can relate to at a personal level, particularly the important role that religion plays in the life of an immigrant. It is in the Catholic Church that my parents, sister and I have found our refuge and have received assistance. Like many Caribbean immigrants, it is here that we have been able to maintain our culture and tradition alive. When we feel down and in need of guidance, we go to the church where we feel replenished and filled.

Something I feel this book has not explicitly mentioned is the effect that Caribbean immigration to the United States has had on the Caribbean. What happened to the islands’ economies?

From this reading, it is clear that in early twentieth century Harlem, the relationship between immigrant blacks and ones born in the United States was one of much tension. This type of relationship seems strange at first glance, as both groups shared many of the same struggles, and were undeniably at a disadvantage when compared with their white counterparts. Their dislike and distrust of each other seemingly came from the way each group was treated by the white majority, but these groups had prejudices against each other that enhanced these negative feelings.

Chapter 1 of Blood Relations explains the monumental transformation that Harlem went through in the turn of the twentieth century. Previously, this land had been settled almost exclusively by whites, and a virulent reluctance to let blacks into the area existed. However, after pressure from elite blacks, especially real-estate agent Phillip Payton, blacks were able to populate the area, and movements were even created to encourage this. By 1915, the area was even populated by immigrants from across the Caribbean. These immigrants were seen by the black community as people to emulate and look up to, mostly because of their “thrift, hard work, and independence” (3). By 1925, though, there were growing sentiments amongst Caribbean immigrants that they were being forced into black Harlem, unable to form neighborhoods of their own. It was around this time that there became a noticeable difference in the reception of native black Americans and those who were foreign. In the reading, multiple instances of such unequal treatment were provided.

Chapter 2 discusses the reasons why immigrants decided to make the move to the United States. After Caribbean communities had been established, it made for strong ties between immigrants, and their family and friends who were still at home. A result of this is that it became easier for more Caribbeans still at home to make the move, as they were able to move in with family and friends who lived in Harlem or other Caribbean neighborhoods. While they had high hopes for coming to the United States, that their quality of life would improve, they were met with scarce employment opportunities once they arrived, and the journey was difficult and expensive. Caribbeans avoided most of the south because of the alleged hostility to people of color. The difficulty of immigration was also extended by the policy of disease checks at places like Ellis Island, and the requirement that immigrants from the Caribbean must have financially stable family members who currently lived in the United States in order to successfully move in.

Finally, in Chapter 3, Blood Relations covers, more specifically, the movement of both native and foreign born blacks into Harlem. This phenomenon was known as the “On to Harlem” movement, which was started by preachers and assisted by large real estate acquisitions by various churches and Caribbean benevolent fundsc. This allowed many elite members of the black community to move uptown into what was considered by many to be some of the nicest real-estate in Manhattan. Eventually, whites in Harlem were ultimately pushed out of the area as a result of their refusal to coexist with blacks. When these whites moved out, more blacks were able to move in at cheaper prices and eventually the entire area became an almost entirely black neighborhood.

What I found most surprising from this reading was how differently foreign blacks were treated from native ones. It was mentioned in maybe a sentence or two in the reading, but it seemed that native African Americans had been placed in their own social caste, and had been, against their will, placed into second-class citizenry. When new blacks who hadn’t been so disadvantaged entered the United States, they spoke many languages and had more education. This enabled them to distance themselves from the African Americans, even though they shared the same skin color. I can only wonder why such treatment was deserved.

Adrian Horczak

Professor J. Lutton

People of New York

February 12, 2015

Within the first three chapters, Blood Relations describes the history of how Harlem became a place settled by many African Americans and African immigrants. It provides some interesting facts about the differences between the ways black Americans were treated compared with black foreigners. In addition, the book explains how the construction of the Panama Canal affected Negros in American, especially those in New York. Ties between family members in the United States of America and abroad are emphasized throughout the book because they were the main factors that lead to black immigration.

Apparently, Harlem was never imagined as a thriving black neighborhood before the twentieth century since white inhabitants resisted black residence in the area. However, a native-born black real estate broker, Philip A. Payton, began the transformation of Harlem into a community of colored peoples after a white landlord requested he fill up his house with black tenants. Then Payton insisted other landlords do the same. Since many African Americans that were living in downtown Manhattan were forced to move out due to new construction projects and overcrowding, they decided to move to the spacious, previously all white sections of Harlem. Therefore, within a decade (1905-1915), Harlem had become a community with a plethora of colored people from a variety of backgrounds including Jamaican, Antigua, the Bahamas, the Virgin Islands, Haiti, Puerto Rico, Panama, and West Africa. Harlem attracted black elite from the entire country and many areas of the world.

The large quantity of black immigrants coming to the country changed the white American’s perception of some black people in New York. The laws requiring separating facilities for white colored people, know as Jim Crow regulations, were strictly enforced at this time, but their enforcement was often neglected when a black person was foreign born. Black Americans had to abide by the regulations, but black immigrants did not and could go to many all white facilities. Black Americans realized that if they learned a foreign language and spoke it with others, they would be better off and some did.

When construction on the Panama Canal was to begin, Americans were sent there to design, dig, and build the features of the canal. At this time, Panama was introduced to the segregation that existed in the United States of America, especially in the areas where work on the canal was being done. White workers had good jobs, wages and housing, while black laborers worked long hours for little pay and lived in poor conditions. In addition, all of these jobs attracted new settlers from the Caribbean. The abundance of men in Panama encouraged some to have their whole families come. However, those from New York usually had established a permanent home, so family visits were temporary. Thus, when work on the canal was complete, many American workers went back.

Harlem in the 1930s changed from the way it was in 1910s. It had grown much more since the first black tenants that came had anchored their lives their and invited their families and other black people to come and live there. Among them, being a black foreigner made them inferior as opposed to the way they used to be viewed. Now they were ridiculed. Still black Americans even if they were educated could not get better jobs and move up the social ladder alongside white Americans because of the color of their skin.

Reading these three chapters has made me realize that there really is no more racism today because, as I stated in the previous statement, people were barred from certain institutions based on their race. However, today that kind of practice is illegal. Thus, opportunities are open to all races, and there is no racism. I do not understand why we have discussed the presence of racism in class if this is so. If indeed there still was racism there would be no black or Hispanic students in specialized high schools, but as we said in class, there are a few who take advantage of the opportunities offered to them.

Moreover, I am perplexed about how the view of black immigrants in America changed so quickly. In the beginning of the nineteenth century, they went from being treated better than black Americans to being jeered at by black Americans.

Blood Relations explores immigration to the United States in the early 1900s. It discusses the effects of families of the migrants, the new communities that were formed, gender roles in society and the creation of Harlem as we know it to be today.

Many of the immigrant families that came to the US came for better job opportunities. Chapter 2 gives the example of common laborers, for whom “completion of the canal in 1914 meant eviction from Isthmus. Others left voluntarily to seek work opportunities elsewhere,” (17). This just shows the cycle of migration for bigger and better, which is a mentality that continues on today.

The first three chapters also discussed racial issues as well as gender roles in the society. In Panama, black employees were paid in Panamanian silver balboas and whites were paid in gold. Job opportunities and luxuries were often in favor of whites as well. Once in America, and in Panama as well, women were not given the same jobs as were offered to men. Men worked in docks, as porters, and did physical labor while women usually did domestic work for upper class white families or worked in sweatshops.

My favorite part of the reading was chapter 3. I was interested in learning the history of how Harlem came to be a predominantly black neighborhood. On page 41, the author states “By 1920, the two-decade long resistance of white Central Harlem homeowners associations crumbled under the weight of the black migration.” This was a powerful statement, in my opinion, because it showed such a drastic change in the neighborhood and captured the power and strength of the “On to Harlem” movement uptown. I also found the idea of the successful real estate firms to be interesting because back in the early 1900s they were able to make a great profit off the large movement to Harlem; where as for a long period in the later 1900s it slowed down and is only now starting up again.

Another part of chapter 3 that I really liked was the section that discussed young women in a powerful light. The White Rose Mission and Industrial Working Girls Home as well as the Danish West Indian Ladies Aid Society seem like valuable organization in a society where there was not a lot of help for young women trying to immigrate to North America. In a time where so many girls were lured into prostitution traps, people like Victoria Earle Matthews were able to prevent such disasters from happening.

This week we began reading Blood Relations: Caribbean Immigrants and the Harlem Community, 1900-1930 by Irma Watkins-Owens, starting with the first three chapters. The book outlines the history of Southern and Caribbean black immigration to New York City and specifically Harlem. The relations between the people studied are seen through the lens of gender, class and race. These contexts are very important for understanding the demographic and cultural identity of Harlem.

Harlem was initially a white neighborhood, called a “residential heaven” at the time, which experienced extreme changes in its demographic in the early twentieth century. There was a lot of resistance to the influx of black immigrants but with the help of certain organizations and individuals the new comers were able to create a community in Harlem. Real Estate agents, like Philip A. Payton, were key in this. They convinced white landowners to rent to black people and eventually bought up buildings in the area. Churches and African American ministers were very important as well, as they also bought buildings in the area and united the native African Americans and Caribbean blacks in their congregations.

An important historical event that was a very important step in the lead up to migrations to New York City was the construction of the Panama Canal. This is discussed in-depth in the second chapter, “Panama Silver Meets Jim Crow.” The Panama Canal required mass amounts of labor, and drew most of workforce from the black populations of Caribbean colonial states. The mass movement of men for labor and women for domestic work changed the migration situation of the region drastically. It set up the beginnings of transnational networks that later became essential to the formation of the black community in Harlem. Workers would use their “Panama money“ to send family members to New York City. Once the construction of the Panama Canal finished, the laborers needed more work and thus found jobs in Caribbean ports and in New York City. This set into motion the heaviest period of black immigration, between 1911 and 1924.

Something that I found interesting about the movement of Caribbean blacks to the United States was their treatment. Southern blacks and any black person taken for a southern black was, for the most part, treated badly and with no respect. But many anecdotes within the text show how foreign blacks who spoke languages other than English or spoke with an “exotic accent” were treated better. In one striking recounting, a man was arrested and appeared before a judge. When the Judge heard his Jamaican accent, his attitude changed and assumed his innocence. This shows how class and history are really important to race relations. It also shows how relative and arbitrary racism and prejudice can be. It was strange to see this now because the views have shifted, typical attitudes in the United States now tend to lump all black people together into one group. From my observations, I believe that now foreign blacks would be treated worse than native ones. It is interesting how perspectives can change drastically and over a short period of time.

Once the black population was settled in Harlem it became an essential and indispensible hub. The transnational networks were very intricate, connecting laborers in the United States with families back in the home countries. The support went both ways in the networks with lots of correspondence back and forth. This facilitated further movement to Harlem. Within families and Harlem communities, people often gathered resources together to buy houses or to bring people over from the Caribbean. The area then became attractive for middle class and elite African Americans. The will to achieve successful mobility was very high. Many blacks in the community studied to become doctors and other such professions to improve their social standing. There is an anecdote that is a very classic example. An immigrant woman, named Edith Mitchell, volunteered at a hospital during the Second World War. After working there for a while, she became a nurse. She worked hard to send her son to medical school and he ended up becoming a physician. This kind of social mobility is what the immigrants all wanted when they came to the New York City. That is what they were denied in the conditions of their home countries.

The vast international consequences of the neighborhood like Harlem and a city like New York are very interesting. I would like to know more about the global political implications. I am interested in finding out more about the reactions and concerns of the European colonial powers and elites of the Caribbean colonial states as they witnessed their populations leaving in massive numbers. Another thing that I am highly interesting in is Cuban and Puerto Rican cigar makers in New York who where active in anti-imperialist, pro-independence and socialist circles. These issues of imperialism and independence are very important to me and continue to be discussed worldwide.

It is quite extraordinary how much history this reading contained so far. Having taken multiple history classes, we have learned about immigration numerous times, such as the various waves of distinguished immigrants including the Germans, Jews, Slavs, Irish, etc. However, this reading clearly elaborated immigration from the Caribbean, while being meticulous with every aspect involved in the immigration process. This reading so far has been very interesting, due to the fact that this immigration wave was not really emphasized in our previous classes of history.

The beginning three chapters followed a very comprehensive and logical method to depict the immigration of the Caribbean islanders, following a chronological method. However, the reading set the premise by the introductory first chapter, which gave a general overview of the background before the immigration that occurred during the early 20th century. In the beginning, there is a brief history of Harlem before the emigration of black individuals, which allows the reader to compare the two scenarios, especially during the crucial shift that occurred when Harlem gradually changed from white residents to black residents. Before this time period, the northern part of Manhattan including Harlem was mostly comprised of white individuals, and the location during that time was very homogeneous. A pivotal and very intriguing occurrence during this time was that, due to over-building, there was an abundant of housing space available, which with the help of real state figure Phillip Payton, was being gradually filled with black individuals. Payton revolutionized history by persuading the white homeowners to allow black tenants to rent in Harlem. This gradual progression eventually led to the formation of Harlem as we know it today, while the white moved to various other locations of Manhattan. During this time, there was a large shift of both native blacks and Caribbean into Harlem, from poor areas of lower Manhattan, which was mostly comprised of native blacks.

Another very interesting point that the reading mentioned was the hostility between the native blacks and Caribbean immigrants. Previously when studying history many of us have learned about the struggle between African Americans and white individuals along with the Irish. However, the fact that these two groups of people, who shared an important characteristic of being the same skin color, (during that time it was considered important) loathed each other was quite ironic in my opinion. Also, during these times of segregation and racism, the immigrants were actually treated more favorably compared to the native blacks. This unequal demeanor might have set the the two sides in conflicting opposition along with other reasons such as different cultures, tradition, beliefs, and work ethics. The fact that influential writers suggested to African Americans during this time to learn different languages such as Spanish or French, imposing as an immigrant in order to be treated more fairly, astonished me quite a bit. However, both the individuals gradually become accustomed to each other, due to the fact that they both lived in the same community of Harlem. Despite their differences, many shared the same home, and eventually they assimilated into unique relationships, with cultural diffusion playing a pivotal role.

Another interesting occurrence that was revealed in the reading was the building of the Panama Canal, but in a much more meticulous manner. In history class, we have all learned about the significance of the Panama Canal, but we never truly discussed the actual events that occurred during the building of this revolutionizing pathway. An interesting aspect that was revealed in the reading was that, once the U.S. took over the building of the Panama Canal, they actually integrated the Jim Crow laws. During this time, numerous Caribbean individuals worked extreme amounts to build the canal, in hopes of raising enough money to pay for their family to move to the “Land of Opportunity.” The Caribbean islanders, following the end of colonization, moved to various islands in hopes of increasing their social status the only way they knew how: by acquiring land. The major concern for these individuals was financial security, but during these times it was extremely tough, especially in their home country. These individuals moved from island to island, but to no avail. Many sought to work under the U.S. to build the Panama Canal, in hopes of reaching America, but this method was not efficient neither, considering the segregation and meager pay the black individuals were given. Along with this time period of injustice, other atrocious activities that disgusted me was tricking innocent Caribbean women into thinking they were going to U.S. to work, while they were actually made into prostitutes. Other more fortunate women were benevolent in their actions which consisted of inducing immigration of its family back home to the U.S. by working hard domestic jobs, and while doing altruistic actions such as inviting recent immigrants into their homes, giving them a temporary safe haven, during their time of perpetual struggles.

Being just in the introductory part of this elaborate reading, many hardships of the long Caribbean odyssey have been depicted in great detail. This reading serves as a window into the past history, that has been, on the most part, overlooked in our history classes, thus allowing it to be even more intriguing. The Caribbean odyssey consists of numerous events that shaped the country, and New York more specifically, as we know it today.

Mohamed Mohamed

The first three chapters of Blood Relations provided enough information for me to get a clear understanding of the early years of Caribbean migration to the States. Some was new to me, but other information had me in deep thought. How diligently and ruthlessly migrants were willing to work in order to step foot on U.S soil just made me stop and reflect. Also, the fact that blacks from the Caribbean who spoke a foreign language were treated better than the native blacks left me confused and curios.

The effort of many Caribbean folks to migrate to the United States was, simply put, incredible. I want to begin with the discussions in chapter 2 and the Panama Canal project. A trip to the United States was expensive. Therefore many were seeking jobs in islands of the Caribbean. The Panama Canal project offered thousands of jobs, however it came with a disclaimer. The construction of the canal was a difficult and a dangerous project. It required hardcore labor and was very unsafe due to accidents and diseases. Sources claim that over 26,000 men were killed, 5,000 of whom were workers during the United States takeover of the project (Source 1 and 2). In spite of this, blacks faced mistreatment and injustice (after U.S took over the Panama Canal project and instituted the Jim Crow Laws). Blacks were paid in silver not gold and were not provided with free housing like the whites. Nevertheless, many Caribbean folks still took the job in the construction of the Panama Canal in hopes of migrating to the United States.

First, I was overfilled with gratefulness after reading this. Living in the United States I have access to a plethora of opportunities. Sadly many of these opportunities I have taken for granted. These are the opportunities that many migrants would have seen as chances to achieve greatness. Moreover, I am living in the United States and enjoying a great education thanks to the struggle of my father and grandfather. My dad’s struggle however can never compare to that of the Caribbean migrants of late 1800s early 1900s. Again this made me even more grateful for having an easy time immigrating. Furthermore, after reflecting I began to feel a great deal of empathy for these people. They worked very diligently day in and day out regardless of the little hope of making it to the States. Even if this hope becomes a reality, then what? They will still find themselves searching for a job and receiving the low level jobs in the slums of New York (If they were unskilled or not educated).

Finally, the first chapter discusses how the treatment of the native blacks was very different from that of the foreign speaking blacks. A Spanish speaking black man was treated better by society than a native black man. Today, the opposite effect seems to have happened. Nowadays, the English speaking black man is at an advantage over the Spanish-speaking fellow. He is more likely to receive the job offer and more likely to receive greater opportunities due to his familiarity with society.

Chapter 1 of Blood Relations talks about the relations between racial groups in Harlem. The dynamics of these relations were important to Harlem’s development as a center for immigrants from the Caribbean. These people, due to their complexion, were inevitably settled into black Harlem. However, they had a particularly great social and cultural impact. The differentiating factor between African-Caribbean people and native African-Americans may have been the patterns in their cultural institutions, to which women contributed greatly. There seemed to be an emphasis on kinship networks and lodging because they led to (what the book called) “employers and hiring.” Harlem politics evolved as the old elite lost its power due to the influx of immigrants, and one notable and new tradition in these politics was the street corner forums.

Chapter 2 talks about the migration of African-Caribbeans within the Caribbean as well as to America. We are introduced to 3 phases in this migration: 1) interterritorial (1835-1885); 2) to foreign lands at the edge of the Caribbean Sea (1880s-1920s); and 3) to America (World War I and later). After emancipation, freed slaves started traveling to find work and good wages in order to acquire property. There was little work in the Caribbean; however, projects farther away (like the Panama Canal) encouraged migration. There were tastes of Jim Crow laws in the Panama Canal Zone along with the establishment of important cultural traditions. For example, blacks were paid in lower wages than whites and were paid in silver (instead of gold). As time progressed, America began to hold the promise of an improvement of life (the “Land of Promise”). However, there were numerous restrictions that migrants had to deal with when coming to America. They included health tests and consultation with the Consul. The receiving individual must have demonstrated financial responsibility, and there was harsh treatment waiting for anyone caught coming illegally. Women played a crucial role in helping settle newcomers. The White Rose Mission, Travelers’ Aid Society, and the Welcome Stranger Committee all helped newcomers find temporary lodging and employment. An immigration bill in 1924 enforced quotas and restricted immigrants of the “black or African race.” Many initially opposed; however, this opposition eventually waned. Thus, African-Caribbean people were being identified as part of a racial community rather than an ethnic one.

Chapter 3 talks about the housing and occupational characteristics of African-Americans (both native and foreign-born) in Harlem. Many immigrants had an education and even a skill; however, they possessed little money. As a result, they could not afford their own housing and had to lodge. Harlem offered a good environment for community building as more and more blacks began to settle there. Thus, the phrase “On to Harlem” became popular. Changes began to come about. The Payton block was basically an example of this transformation: from an Irish and German community to a heterogeneous black American and Caribbean-immigrant community. It was originally thought that Harlem itself could not become a black sector. However, this was proven wrong when there was a movement of black immigrants uptown and Russian Jews and Italians downtown. In terms of occupation in and around the Payton block, most were in low white-collar occupations. Some others made it in real estate, like Nail and Parker. Churches and organizations owned most of the property available. For smaller groups, collective economics was required with the pooling of resources. An increase in tenement development as well as higher rates led to an increase in household size. One inevitable side effect was the concept of lodging, which was a way of life due to high rents and an influx of newcomers. There was often a similarity in occupations and origin among lodgers and hosts.

***

What is important is that the main motivation of migration involved the possibility of finding a better job and improving one’s (or one’s children’s) present condition. This is true even today. However, it seemed that the true struggle back then was to maintain one’s status despite economic condition. In doing so, few achieved social mobility. However, these Caribbean immigrants could at least hope that their children could move up the social ladder. It was certainly a reachable goal; however, that goal involved an arduous path.

One thing I noticed throughout these chapters was the importance of immigrant family networks. It seemed that there was a mention of this on almost every other page. We could see the large amounts of communication between immigrants and their families. Relatives had numerous expectations of their loved ones abroad, and relations could get strained because of this. There was also the mention of family obligations (for example, older people being expected to help raise younger children). This all highlights how important the notion of family was to these immigrants. Families could have provided a support system for these immigrants. However, they could have also been a source of stress. I can understand how the expectation of making enough money and succeeding can put a burden on those already here. However, these family ties were beneficial for those relatives who were planning to come to America as it could have made the immigration process somewhat easier. Thus, family ties contributed to a “snowball effect” in immigration.

In chapter one, a point was made that if a black person was foreign-born, he/she was treated generally better than a native-born black person. One could tell from differences in language or accent. This actually surprised me. I believed that prejudice was based solely on skin color (despite country of origin). However, this statement seemed to challenge that assertion. Indeed, the book even mentions it as the “strange ways of U.S. prejudice.” I am curious as to why this was the case. Why were foreign-born blacks treated better than native-born blacks? In addition, the opposite seems to have become the case later on. I am also curious as to what caused this abrupt shift.

I particularly enjoyed the stories that the author put into the chapters, especially those about Aletha Dowridge and Charles Petioni. It seemed to add a human component to the writing. Instead of the book being a recitation of facts, it became more personal and relatable to the reader.

Chapter 1 of Blood Relations discusses the initial push of black natives into Harlem. This began when the rent prices of San Juan Hill- where most blacks in New York City resided- increased rapidly. Furthermore, race riots in the area along with the construction of Penn Station called for a movement out of the section and into somewhere new. Harlem seemed to be the choice black natives took, especially since real estate agents such as Philip Payton influenced white land owners to rent apartments to black tenants. Thus, Harlem began growing as a center of black community. With a growing number of black residents, Harlem began to attract elite members of the black populace, for example, W.E.B. Du Bois who sought to report of the Harlem movement in his newspaper. Other than Native blacks moving into Harlem, there was also a push by caribbean immigrants into upper Manhattan. This emigration was almost completely unrestricted, until 1924 when the United States initiated an immigration quota. Anyhow, by then, of the 328,000 African Americans in the U.S., 224,000 resided in Manhattan, and especially in Harlem. Surprisingly, the caribbean immigrants that moved to the U.S. were favored over native blacks. From accounts, it seemed that white Americans gave selective treatment to foreign blacks, especially those who they heard speak Spanish or French. Odd indeed. No matter, Caribbean Islanders and black natives worked together to form communities. Within those communities, there seemed to be an abundance of women, which wasn’t negative as women were vital in settlement and creating immigration chains. Many immigrants in Harlem assimilated to settled communions and institutions, others however formed their own churches. Politics, however, was not an interest of these incoming immigrants as it was a rarity to see a caribbean islander participating in an election, even local ones.

Chapter 2 of Blood Relations discussed the paths Caribbean Islanders took before coming to the United States. Specifically, there was an inter-immigration between the islands in pursuit of employment. Crop plantations sought to employ the majority of the population on their islands, and as well the populations on other islands. Furthermore, Caribbean citizens themselves were unable to get their own land as the colonial system ensured that freed slaves would become laborers and not land owners. Thus, hard labor was the only choice these islanders had for employment. And when one Caribbean Island had no opportunities, workers turned to other islands. Furthermore, between 1838-1917, some 500,000 Asians were imported to work. This created a tight competition for employment. However, some projects and businesses relieved the tension, specifically the Panama Canal Project and the Sugar estates in Cuba and the Dominican Republic. These work opportunities were also vital in the immigration the islanders took to the U.S.. After the U.S. took over the Panama Canal Project, Jim Crow was further instituted. There was segregation, discrimination, and cruelty in Panama as blacks were not offered housing and were paid in silver instead of gold. Even the lowliest white workers received free housing. Other than working on the canal, Caribbean Islanders, specifically Women, were recruited to Panama for household work. This helped establish Caribbean communities and families in Panama. Some islanders even set up businesses. Some women were unfortunately tricked into coming to Panama and then taken into prostitution.  In the canal zone, there was little social mobility. Only Caribbean Islanders people with skills and education had any chance of becoming something other than hard laborers.

After the canal was built, Cuba was the next destination. The United Fruit Company was vital in the emigration of people from island to island as they controlled the plantations and opportunities. In Cuba, Caribbean communities were formed around ports that had a constant movement of ships that brought mail, goods, and people. Islanders sought to maintain touch with their homeland and families. Coming to America from Cuba and other islands was extremely difficult. Not only that, but families had to be separated as the trip was too expensive to afford. Some islands governments, for example the Barbados, set up emigration services to America. This worked by sending mostly women to the United States to create immigration chains. Without such services, getting into America was problematic as there were strict guidelines and rules that were purposefully difficult that immigrants had to meet. Furthermore, transportation on liners was terrible as blacks were segregated and treated miserably. The senate did not help with the struggle of these Caribbean Islanders as a an exclusion act was passed to specifically exclude Black foreigners.

Chapter 3 of Blood Relations discusses the life Caribbean Islanders followed when they finally reached Harlem. Black immigrants that came to Harlem lived in close proximity to black natives. Thus, Harlem offered a greater chance of community than any other place for the incoming immigrants. Churches and black elite sought to expand this black community in Harlem by buying apartment buildings and homes for blacks to rent. This however was only in a compact section of Harlem. This changed in 1920 when whites gave way and began moving out of Harlem allowing the purchase of homes at discounted prices. Thus more of Harlem became further occupied by native blacks and incoming immigrants. Many parts of Harlem even became exclusive to the black elite. For example, “Sugar Hill” on 155 street between St. Nichols and Convent avenue was home to self made black millionaires.  Philip Payton, mentioned earlier, continued his pursuit of property management and allowed blacks to continue moving further uptown through his successful real estate ventures. Other black businessmen included Watt Terry, Montsenant Roach, and Soloman Riley who made their millions off stocks. Of course, not everyone could afford the homes Harlem. Thus, “no-interest” loans were implemented within the Harlem community to allow the easier purchase of previously unaffordable homes. There were also fund raising activities on the Caribbean Islands for the purchase of Harlem buildings. Interestingly, female household work was the largest occupation in Harlem. This was due the difficulty in which blacks could attain other jobs, specifically those that required high skill sets. Immigrants of course experienced a greater difficulty to find steady jobs than the black natives, thus institutions like the New York Colored Mission were created to ease the transition immigrants made into American life by offering jobs and lodging. However, blacks still sought social mobility in the city, and that was the main motivation behind their immigration. An example of such motivation was Charles Petioni who struggled with his wife for several years until he was able to earn a medical degree.

The first three chapters Blood Relations offered deep insight about the movement of Caribbean Islanders to Harlem as well as the life black natives led in New York. I was firstly surprised by the selective treatment black foreigners gained over black natives. I was also surprised about the movement Caribbean Islanders experienced undertook from island to island in search of employment. However what wasn’t surprising is the struggle blacks faced in all their actions. I have already learned about the struggles of blacks in the U.S., and now am I aware that the struggle wasn’t exclusive to the U.S.. However, it is motivational to hear the first person accounts Blood Relations offers of the Caribbean immigrants and the stories of the self made millionaires.

The three articles read this week revolved around immigration in the United States. Specifically, the three articles focused on incoming and settled immigrants, from the past to the present, and their impact on policies, American ideology, employment, institutions, and of course culture.

The Significance of immigration in the formation of an American identity by Rudolph Vecoli discusses the journey the U.S. has underwent in forming its own distinct nationality. Vecoli states that from its beginnings, the American identity was built upon the immigrant populace, but yet for so long, America has continued to exclude immigrants from its society. The article supports the idea of an immigrant identity in the U.S. through statistics of immigrant numbers in the U.S.. At its formation, the U.S. was an amalgamation of different nationalities and races, 19% being of african ancestry, 12% western european, and 48% English. However, only “free whites” in the population were considered citizens. From 1820-1920, in three waves, 55 million people emigrated to the country as the U.S. was seen as an asylum for the oppressed due its supposed open acceptance. However, many of these immigrants, like the catholic Irish were oppressed due to their religion. Also, east asians were completely excluded from entering the country by the exclusion acts of the late 1880’s. Thus, immigrants composed a huge population of the American society, and although some nations were excluded, almost all were allowed entry. This huge immigrant population caused an issue. The hegemony of white american citizens wanted these immigrants should assimilate to the already settled American identity, and although some did, others did not. The opposers argued that to assimilate would be contradictory to the melting pot idea. As Kallen states, the U.S. was formed on immigrant populations that infused their own culture into a new American one, that included the best of countless cultures, beliefs, and customs. This was the true American Identity, as opposed to assimilating to become a WASP society.

I couldn’t agree more with Vecoli’s essay. The U.S. was founded as an immigrant society, and to oppress immigrants and force them to assimilate would be contradictory to its foundations. Immigrants should not assimilate to the white American society, but should add on to an American identity that continues to grow with every immigrant group’s contribution.

Immigrants in NYC in the New Millienium by Nancy Foner discusses how immigrants have impacted New York businesses, institutions, politics, demographics, and the population. Mainly, the essay is proving that immigrants have diversified the city and have given benefits and growth to the economy. 1 in 3 New Yorkers were immigrants or of immigrant parents in 2010. That 1 in 3 contains a multitude of nationalities, that today are much different than what they were in the past. Specifically, in the number of non-europeans that includes Caribbean islanders, Latinos, Africans, South Asians, and East Asians. These immigrant groups however do not have a foothold in the cities majority population as no one group is long dominant as was with white europeans in the past.  Furthermore, these immigrants are not leaving their old country behind. Rather, they are maintaining old customs and see themselves as ethnic New Yorkers. Politically, many members of these groups have joined politics, thus diversifying the New York government. An example being John Liu from Taiwan. Immigrant groups have found job niches. For example, Caribbean islanders will most likely be found in hospital care, Korean would be found in dry cleaning, and Latinos in food service. Some immigrants have formed ethnic neighborhoods, which may seem contradictory the American ideals, but these neighborhoods are reviving areas. For example, Sunset park in Brooklyn has become a major commercial center due to Chinese and Latino influxes. Finally,immigrants have also increased public school involvement due the pursuit of the American dream.

This article was my favorite. Reading it was like justifying many of the things I have noticed through out my time in New York. Being from Brooklyn, every neighborhood I pass has an immigrant majority which infuses its culture into its surroundings. For example, I live in Bensonhurst which has a primarily Chinese area after being majorly Italian. And through that, I witness all the businesses opening and the increasing number of Chinese in schools pursuing a good future. Thus, I felt connected to the essay with my everyday life.

The last essay, The Next Generation Emerges, by Philip Kasinitz focused on the second generation of immigrations and how they are coping in the American society. Kasinitz argues, that contradictory to what is popularly thought, the second generation is doing much better than believed in terms of culture, education, and employment. Half of the young adults in NYC are either second generation immigrants or 1.5 generation immigrants. Meaning they are born elsewhere but mature in the U.S.. Kasinitz performed a study abbreviated ISGMNY that questioned 2,000 immigrants youth in various fields. The study found that the second generation is assimilating well to the American society. Almost all the second generation speaks english and has adapted to American customs. However, many continue to maintain customs and the languages they learned from their parents by choice. Kasinitz finds that the second generation seeks to be distinct from other nationalities, specifically ones that are close to their own. For example, Caribbean islander youth do not like being generalized as “black” Americans; they wanna be specifically categorized as Jamaican, Trinidadian, etc. In terms of education, immigrant children seem to be doing better than natives, specifically the Chinese and Russian. The study used a NEET(Not in education, employment, or training) to be the lowest for the Chinese and Russian and highest for immigrant latinos and Africans. However, those immigrants are still doing better than the natives. ISGMNY also found that the immigrants youth are straying away from their parents occupations and seeking high profile jobs in retail and finance. To do so, a large portion of immigrant youth are attending colleges and university, specifically CUNY. The second generation also seems to be more comfortable discussing race as opposed to their parents.

This article pertains to me the most. I am of the 1.5 generation and the ISGMNY census told the story of my life. I speak english and assimilate to the American culture, but yet  I maintain my Arabic background. Furthermore, I seek to do well in school and attend CUNY in hopes of a high profile job like many of the immigrant youth.

All three readings explain that immigration has played an important role in the United States and especially in New York City. They highlight the struggles immigrants and their children faced and what jobs they worked in this country. The readings describe how immigration changed over the course of time and how much more welcoming New York City has become toward new immigrants. Since in the past Americans were afraid the immigrants would take over their country, immigrants began to be oppressed. However, now Americans see immigrants as helpful and they feel comfortable living among so many ethnic backgrounds. The readings try to convey that Americans have accepted the fact that the country is characterized by a combination of different cultures. In addition, now there are institutions helping immigrants assimilate to American culture by providing affordable housing and good education.

The first reading, The Significance of Immigration in the Formation of an American Identity, mainly focuses on the nation’s policy toward immigrants. It discloses Americans’ uneasiness with immigrants because of fear of danger posed by foreigners to American values and institutions. However, this changed when they became to realize how the nation is a melting pot of foreign cultures that are melting and reforming. Ethnic diversity began to challenge the concept that people of foreign cultures could not become Americans. Now many immigrants are coming to this country and becoming Americans.

The other two readings, The Next Generation Emerges and Immigrants in New York City in the New Millennium, are concerned with immigrant social and economic status in New York City. They also explore the trends among certain groups of immigrants and compare them with immigrants of other backgrounds and even Americans. For example, children of Chinese immigrants comprise a large percent of students in New York’s top public schools. In contrast, white and black parents with high expectations send their kids to private schools. Additionally, they note the significant differences between the immigrants and their children. For example, immigrants would take low paying jobs that require long hours, but their children would not want to be employed in those kinds of jobs because they go to college and want to make more money.

I realized that the last two readings focused on immigrants in New York City. It seems they complement each other and sometimes state similar statements. They also begin with practically the same sentences. Since I live in New York City, I have notice that the trends among different ethnic groups indeed holds true. I see that many people who lack good English speaking skills have working class jobs, while most young people plan to attend college and get a successful job. Attending public and private Catholic schools, I have noticed differences in the kinds of people I see.

The first reading repeated many things I learned in my history classes. For example when certain kinds of immigrants came to the United States. In addition, I knew that immigration encouraged the government to change the definition of American citizenship. However, I was happy to be reminded that Americans started feeling comfortable living among people of different cultures.

Admittedly, prior to these readings I’ve had a very basic understanding of immigration and its history (a somewhat shameful fact as I am a child of immigrants), so it has been intriguing to learn more about the elements of immigration’s evolution.

From its beginning, the US has discussed what the national identity should be and how it should be formed. Since becoming an American was largely a choice (not counting those who had no choice), George Washington and John Quincy Adams both expressed that becoming an American meant shedding all prior beliefs, cultures, and allegiances and choosing to join the new American race. However, citizenship was originally limited to free white males, and it is virtually impossible to completely shed one’s entire culture. There was a divide about whether one should conform to the ideals set by the Anglo-American elite, or if one should have an exchange between their native culture and American culture, ultimately contributing to the melting pot.

Today, the US continues to experience its third wave of immigration, and New York acts as a unique frontier for immigration and assimilation. Immigrants continue to come for economic opportunities, oppressive, unstable conditions in their homeland, and because “newcomers do not stand out” in New York. As of 2010, New York is 37% immigrant and 55% when the second generation of American-born children is included.

Personally, I found the discussion of the second generation most intriguing. Generally, the second generation appears to be doing well, although Kasinitz and Foner both mention that this data was taken during good economic times. The second generation is achieving higher positions in the workforce than that of their parents, but it is still unclear if they will successfully assimilate into top positions. The youth also are more comfortable with the rising multiculturalism than previous generations of American. This is most prominent in multicultural communities like Jackson Heights, Queens and Sunset Park.

However there seems to be a divide in which ethnic groups are succeeding. Large amounts of Russian Jews, the Chinese, and native whites attend Tier I schools, while large amounts of African Americans, Dominicans, Puerto Ricans, and West Indians attend Tier IV schools. The latter groups also benefit less from the public school system and increased school choice than the former groups. What causes this divide, and does the public school system need to make changes? Is this discrepancy affected by the gap between the rich and the poor? Does it contribute to it?

As the baby boomers retire and immigration continues, mainstream multiculturalism will continue to increase affecting the workforce, politics, and society in new ways. This will once again challenge the notion of what it means to be American. It will be interesting what affects this major change will have, how the public will react, and how we continue to develop our national identity.

Vecoli – The Significance of Immigration in the Formation of an American Identity

• The hope was that the 13 former colonies would become one unified state.
  • However, contrary to popular belief, the population was hardly homogeneous and was, in fact, a “complex ethnic mosaic.”
• 1790 → criteria for naturalization established, but only available to “any alien, being a free white person.”
  • Full rights weren’t available until much later.
• Race was used as grounds for citizenship, especially during the mass immigrations of the 19^th and 20^th
• In the Declaration of Independence, it was written that “all men are created equal,” but were they really?
• Intense debate has existed over the years
  • Notion that America is an asylum for the oppressed of the world. (Common Sense)
  • However, there was a fear of instability in the social order because of these immigrants, as well as a lowered standard of living and lowered health conditions.
    • This feeling created the roots for the nativism movement.
    • The influx of Irish Catholics in the first major immigration wave created the grounds for the Know-Nothing Party in 1854.
    • Also, statutes excluding Asians in the late 18^th and early 19^th
• “Scientific racialism” was based on Social Darwinism in terms of Anglo superiority.
• How would immigration affect the American identity?
• There was a caste-like system in slavery and industrialism, but this collapsed.
• No one has taken the phrase “All men are created equal” more seriously than those denied their rights.
• Immigrants were expected to shed their cultural identity and assimilate into Anglo-American values and culture.
  • The education system especially promoted this for children of lower-class backgrounds.
  • The issue surrounding Spanish-speaking groups and bilingual education has raised fears that America will become linguistically fragmented.
  • There have been movements to make English the official language of the country.
• The notion of the “melting pot”
  • Notion where the various cultures of America come and mix together to form a new culture and identity.
  • Some have challenged this view saying that Anglos are the “cooks” in this melting pot.
• An interesting quote from Michel Guillaume Jean de Crevecoeur’s essay (1782):
  • “He is an American, who, leaving behind him all his ancient prejudices and manners, receives new ones from the new mode of life he has embraced, the new government he obeys, and the new rank he holds….Here individuals of all races are melted into a new race of men, whose labours and posterity will one day cause great changes in the world.”
    • It seems that it was the dominant view that immigrants were expected to assimilate into the dominant culture. It was surprising to see that this view existed even when the country was still in its infancy.
• An idea of cultural pluralism (coexisting traditions and cultures) comes forth.
  • Kallen: America as a “great republic consisting of a federation or commonwealth of nationalities.”
    • Not an “American race”
    • The idea of the melting pot was beginning to be considered a failure.
• In the 1930s, pluralism flowers because the depression undermines the dominance of existing hierarchies and of the work of people like Louis Adamic.
  • This then dies back down because of two decades of war.
• In the 1960s and 1970s, a reconsideration of existing ideas takes place because of the Vietnam War and the current state of the cities.
  • There happens to be a “revival of ethnicity,” and the melting pot notion is seen as an excuse for Anglo dominance.
  • There is an outpouring of different art forms (novels, films, plays, etc.) that examine culture and identity.

Vecoli’s writing examines how immigration affected the American mindset since the country’s early days. The conflict between the idea of “All men are created equal” (and so are immigrants) and the ideal of one “American race” was one marked by volatility. Vecoli’s writing identifies the obstacles that the country had to overcome in order to find its identity. He also goes into detail on historical influences on the ideas of Anglo superiority as well as the relatively recent idea of cultural pluralism. However, there is one quote in the article that I must disagree with. Vecoli states that “the visibility of the newcomers…has triggered a latent xenophobia in the American psyche” (15). I would say that the word “xenophobia” is somewhat extreme. Although this statement does correctly characterize some people, it would be incorrect and wrong to overgeneralize to the entire country. Even describing this feeling as “latent” would be wrong. Given how people can freely express their ideas through various mediums (most notably, social media), any feelings of xenophobia would be much more well-known and widespread than what is implied in this statement. Despite this, I was pleased with the writing, and the fact that it examined the search for an identity: Something that many people and groups struggle with everyday.

Foner – Immigrants in New York City in the New Millennium

• New York City = a gateway for new arrivals
• 2010 – 37% of population were immigrants
  • Huge impact
• Immigrants come from varied backgrounds.
  • Firstly, European; now, mainly Latin American, Caribbean, and Asian.
  • Higher proportion have college degrees.
• 1965 Immigration Act – increased immigration
  • family reunification and skills emphasized
  • refugees allowed
  • diversity encouraged
• Promise of better living
  • Fleeing homelands because of no opportunities / political factors
• “Snowball effect:” people who immigrate make it “easier” for people they know in their homelands to also immigrate.
  • Immigrant communities
• Drawn by an image as well as range of social, health, and educational services offered.
• Many New Yorkers have a close immigrant connection.
• Diversity
  • No countries dominate in immigrant population share.
  • “Every major ethnosocial group…has a significant portion of foreign-born.”
• Ethnic politics contributes to NYC politics.
  • g. Mayors have made visits to other countries (like Israel).
• NYC committed to cultural pluralism.
  • g. Alternate side parking regulations
• Immigrant population not homogenized; maintain an identity.
• Pre-migration values and attitudes shape immigrant experiences,
  • Religion, family,…cooking
• Many immigrants maintain transnational ties.
  • Help strengthen cultural patterns here
  • May or may not grab attention away from U.S. politics and issues here.
• Human capital – the knowledge or skills individual migrants bring.
• Immigrants make up a good portion of NYC’s labor (~45%)
  • 3/4 of immigrant men and 3/5 of immigrants women
• Some groups can be found in occupational niches.
  • Second-generation have largely rejected parental niches, however.
• A group’s demographic composition can influence:
  • Ethnic businesses
  • Elections
  • Marriage patterns
  • Family patterns
• Racial inequality is a harsh reality.
  • Prejudice and discrimination
• However, religion usually not a barrier.
• Legal status – inequality and exclusion
  • in labor market (low pay, poor conditions)
  • no welfare and other benefits
• Immigrants have huge impact on NYC.
  • Dense ethnic neighborhoods with distinct ethnic character (e.g. Flatbush)
  • Polyethnic neighborhoods
  • Community centers
  • Political groups
  • Ethnic businesses
  • Neighborhood revitalization (e.g. Sunset Park)
  • Food (restaurants/groceries)
  • Music
  • Parades/Festivals (ex. West Indian American Day Parade)
  • Literary traditions (novels)
  • Racial and ethnic dynamics (perception)
    • Have become amicable (“United Nations of friends”)
    • Yet, conflict exists
  • Ethnic division of labor
    • “Your driver is likely to be South Asian;…nursing aide…will be West Indian; the vendor at the corner newsstand is Indian.”
  • Marks on mainstream institutions
    • Schools (public school enrollment increase, schools for recent immigrant children, Roman Catholic schools)
    • Hospitals (interpreter and translation services, services for particular groups with certain health risks)
  • Cultural institutions (libraries, museums [El Museo del Barrio])
• Immigrants have radically transformed NYC
  • And will continue to do so.

In her introduction, Nancy Foner discusses the effect of immigrants on New York City: its people, its institutions, and its future. Foner goes into great detail about how immigrants leave their mark on and adapt to the City. I admired Foner’s use of statistics, examples, and stories to describe and support what she was trying to say. The thing I admired most was her extensive use of the future tense in the conclusion: “will remain a part of the demographic picture,” “will enrich and replenish,” “will no doubt persist.” She emphasizes how truly important the future is to these immigrants and their communities. Seeing the past and how much has changed for these immigrants over the years, it will be interesting to see what the future will bring for these same people. This reading also alludes back to the search for an identity; however, in this reading, it is coupled with the search for an economic and social well-being as well. While an identity is important, it is important that these immigrants achieve a degree of stability in life. I appreciate how Foner brought this up in the writing.

Kasinitz et al. – The Next Generation Emerges

• The status of the children of immigrants (the “second-generation”) is an important matter.
  • They far outnumber the children of natives.
  • They are also beginning to make an impact on New York itself.
• A concern: How would the city adjust to the fact that whites will soon not make up the majority?
  • Authors say concerns are misplaced.
  • Assimilation by the second generation seems very rapid.
• Many of the second generation are not connected to their parents’ homeland.
• The status of the second generation seems to be generalized. However, there are marked social differences and differences in economic and educational advancement, among other things.
• Groups vary in terms of education.
  • Russian Jews and Chinese do generally better in the education system.
  • Chinese, in particular, do better in the public school system.
  • More Chinese, Russian Jews, and native white attend Tier I (top-tier) colleges.
• Worry about the second generation’s entry into labor force.
  • “Downward assimilation” and “underclass of inner-city poverty”
  • It seems like this is not the case.
• 2G less likely to work in ethnic niches.
  • They begin to reject these parental niches.
  • These niches are seen as “immigrant jobs.”
• NEET (not in employment, education, or training) rate – highest for African-Americans and Puerto Ricans
• Second-generation decline seems unlikely.
  • Most 2G work in same kinds of jobs as most young people in NYC have.
• 2G not particularly interested in politics.
  • However, some have emerged as leaders.
  • Yvette Clarke, Grace Meng, John Liu
    • Support from broad range of immigrant/second generation groups.
• Assimilation seems to be happening faster.
  • Second generation more at ease with both American and ethnic identities.
• However, some caution.
  • Studies were done in good economic times.
  • How has the recession affected the second generation?
  • What about the state of native blacks and Latinos in the education system?
  • What about the status of undocumented immigrants?
• Despite optimism, incorporation of immigrants in the city remains a problem.

Kasinitz et al. examines the incorporation and assimilation of the children of immigrants into mainstream New York City. The authors present numerous statistics regarding the state of the second-generation in terms of employment and education, among other areas. I appreciated the use of these statistics since it provided a fuller picture of how far immigrants have come in terms of these areas. One thing that I found interesting in the chapter was the authors’ assertion that a “long-term view” of immigration (one that takes into account the progress of the second generation) would lead to a more optimistic assessment of immigration in American life. This is an especially important issue today, especially with the currently raging debates over the immigration system in America. I’m interested in how the authors propose approaching this debate. They talk about using a “long-term view,” but I would like to know what the authors specifically mean when they say this and how it would specifically apply to the current debate.

How does one describe an American?  After reading this short series of articles I’ve come to the conclusion that I don’t know, and I’d be willing to put money (a small sum mind you, being a college student is expensive) that most people don’t know either.  If I were to put it succinctly I’d say that an American is whoever feels comfortable in America.  New York City has proven itself to be one of the most amenable places to those hailing from countries both widely and scarcely known.  This environment has given rise to a million different ethnic enclaves each with their own distinct impact on the “feel” of the neighborhood, I use the word “feel” because there really is no one concise way to experience the impact that this myriad groups of people has had since their arrival.  Politics, local practices and, my personal favorite, food has been shaped in neighborhoods due to the demographics of the area   Truly, over the years New York City has become the most cosmopolitan city in the world.

A bit of personal information, I come from a neighborhood nestled in the heart of Nassau county that is 95% white.  While I always knew that New York City was this beautiful melting pot of languages, cultures, and peoples as I soon found out the only true way to grasp this concept is to live here.  Over the course of the day I am exposed to cultures both familiar and foreign as I maneuver the streets of Manhattan.  For example, on the intersection of 97th and 3rd (where I live currently) there’s a mosque and small hole in the wall pizzeria side by side.  Where on Earth would one find such a beautiful melange of cultures besides New York City?  As of yet I have not found a place that measures up.

It’s no wonder people come here in droves from all parts of the world, here they are given the opportunity to establish themselves, feel comfortable with their fellow countrymen and benefit from all the advantages that being an American brings.  Coupled with this, as Vecoli stated, they also are able to retain their cultural identity.  Their retention of who they are has facilitated their alignment among ethnic lines to form communities and lobby for concessions.  Of course, this situation isn’t completely advantageous for foreign transplants as there has been a long history of exclusion with regards to certain ethnic groups.  This exclusion is largely white on black based and has paved the way for black communities, such as Haitians and certain peoples from the Caribbean to rally for their rights.  I’d argue that such a mobilization of people could only happen here, where people are empowered by their heritage.

This city is one of the few places where people from all over the world  can make themselves feel as if they belong.  America was founded on immigrants, the various waves of immigration changing demographics both locally and nationally.

I walked into my first day of kindergarten knowing only a few English phrases. In a family full of immigrants, my first teacher was the television. Since a young age, I felt the need to call myself an American. I wanted to fit in with some sort of idea that, in truth, had a very broad and flexible meaning. I wanted to assimilate very quickly, but as I have grown older, I have found my views changing. In Vecoli’s The Significance of Immigration in the Formation of An American Identity, he explores the definition of assimilation. Does it mean to completely shed your roots and leave it at the steps of the Statue of Liberty, or do we give a bit of it up to this giant melting pot that is New York City? I found that assimilation was both a blessing and a curse for me. I did lose a bit of my culture, but I felt that I was simultaneously growing up to be a part of this new American race. Being raised in New York City gave me a different definition of what it meant to be American, than had I been raised in the Midwest, and in my opinion I believe NYC has given the word “American” a different meaning.

In Kasinitz’s The Next Generation Emerges, he quotes one woman who says, “There’s a certain richness that comes along with having another culture to fall back on. People are always intrigued. They ask what does it mean to be Russian and you feel a little special to explain and it adds color to you.” Out of the three readings this week, I felt the most connected to this one line. Firstly, because I felt that I related to the woman about knowing Russian and having that culture in our blood. Second, this statement holds very true to me. It took me a while to finally realize the advantages of knowing multiple languages and being raised in a multicultural home. I think that over time, I’ve been able, as Kasintiz stated, combine the best of my parents’ culture with the best that America has to offer.”

The third work One out of Three by Foner was probably my favorite piece. I liked how it covered so many things such as education for children of immigrants, jobs that immigrants usually take on, ethnic communities and businesses, and other obvious but overlooked things. I knew a lot that was mentioned in the article, but it was interesting to find out facts such as how Korean businesses transformed NYC. I thought this article also brought up a lot of questions about the future that did not have an answer. One of these issues discussed the legal status of immigrant children and deportation. I have heard so much on the news about college students who were considered illegal immigrants that were on the verge of being deported. I think it’s a growing issue, and there should be more done to protect people our age who are trying to receive an education.

The first reading is a paper titled The Significance of Immigration in the Formation of an American Identity by Rudolph J. Vecoli. In this article, Vecoli gives an in-depth overview and analysis of the immigration to the United States and how it was perceived at different points in the history of the country. Though the country is often praised as being the home of liberty and equality since its birth, it often created hierarchies within the groups living there. Some ethnic groups living in the country did not receive the same liberties and privileges as the ruling Anglo-Saxon class. There were multiple different migration waves to the United States, each from different regions of the world. The newest groups are always feared and discriminated against. The “native population” usually has several reactions; some embrace the new cultures while others push back against them. Eventually the immigrant groups are accepted into the American identity and then another wave comes, continuing the cycle. This article is important for looking at immigration through the lens of history. History is very important for an accurate evaluation of the state of immigration but is often ignored. I agree with Vecoli, that the country has always been heterogeneous, even though some like to believe that it was homogenous. It has been the combination of homogeneousness and heterogeneousness of the populations that makes the American identity such a complex and interesting topic. Vecoli’s optimism, regarding American identity and its inclusiveness, leaves me hopeful. This article also leaves me with a few questions of our future: Will the new groups of immigrants, like Latin Americans and the Chinese, ever be accepted into the American identity? Will cultures assimilate and keep the “American culture” stagnant or succeed in bringing changes? What will the “American identity” look like in the future and how much will it be affected by immigration?

The second reading is a paper titled Immigrants in New York City in the New Millennium by Nancy Foner. The article begins by describing why different groups immigrate to New York City, making it a hub and gateway. The reasons include economic ones, external political ones and changes in immigration policy, that bring immigrants to the city. I agree that New York is very special as a gateway because its immigrant population is very diverse and not dominated by a few ethnic groups. Once the groups are here, the things that they bring with them from their homelands affect and the change the city, keeping New York very dynamic. But this is not only a one-sided relationship, since immigrants keep transnational connections, so there is a lot of back and forth sharing between all the homelands and New York City. These immigrants also face different treatment based on they’re stereotypical occupations, race, religion and legal status. I agree with the idea that “continued inflows will enrich and replenish the city’s ethnic communities.” The changes that immigrants bring with them are generally for the better, creating a more culturally rich society.

The third reading is The Next Generation Emerges by Philip Kasinitz, Jogn H. Mollenkopf, and Mary C. Waters. The article discusses the experience of different generations of immigrants in New York City. It is shown that “by most measures, the second generation is assimilating into American society very rapidly,” which is something I agree with, based on my own experiences and observations. The experience of the second-generation immigrants is significantly different based on the immigrant group that they belong to. For example, “Russian Jews and the Chinese were significantly more likely to have graduated from high school, completed a four-year college degree, or acquired post graduate education than the other groups and significantly less likely to have dropped out of high school.” A trend that seems to be true for all the groups, is that the second-generation immigrants don’t fall into the ethnic niches of the workforce. The second generation, generally, does not have a strong interest in following or being involved in politics. This is another thing that I have also observed, living in New York City with many second-generation immigrants. I am very curious to see how the second-generation and further generations of immigrants will turn out and integrate themselves into the United States and the culture of New York City.

Nicolas Yehya

Immigration has always been a central topic of debate for many decades in numerous nations. In Rudolph J. Vecoli’s article, “The Significance of Immigration in the Formation of an American Identity”, Vecoli thoroughly analyzes the migration waves that have occurred in the United States of America over time, specifically noting the three main waves and their consequences. Vecoli makes it clear that ever since the early 1790s, the American population was a heterogeneous mix, containing many Germans, French, Scotts, English, and Irish immigrants. America was a conglomerate of different types of people ever since the beginning of America’s history. Multiple waves in the eighteen and nineteen hundreds quickly led to the resentment of immigrants and many other dilemmas. In the first wave, Germans, Irish, British, and Scandinavians were the main immigrants to move to America. The second wave brought Italian, Russian, and Austria-Hungarian immigrants to the States. The third and final main wave brought Mexican, South American, Asian, and Caribbean immigrants. Many native citizens of the States became cautious and weary of the immigrants, believing that the immigrants would not assimilate well into the culture and replace the white natives. These irrational fears eventually led to the Chinese Exclusion Acts and other similar laws for protection to the citizens against the immigrants. In the article, Vecoli explains that the melting pot phrase is a way for all the people and cultures in America to intermix and assimilate with each other. However, in the process, the population will form “cultural half-breeds”, thus losing a sense of themselves and their culture. To this statement, I completely disagree with how Vecoli views the term “melting pot”. Ever since I was a little kid, I have always viewed the term “melting pot” in a positive light. A melting pot is a way for the community to blend all their cultures together to create a harmonious balance to coexist with each other. I never felt that in this process, people lose part of their culture. The melting pot is a way to bring diversity to America with equal importance to each culture. It seems that immigrants always create fear in society when there are large numbers of them arriving to certain countries. When will the citizens of countries become more welcoming to these immigrants who bring their cultures and amazing information with them? Vecoli ends the article with a new sense of hope concerning that American nationalism is changing to accommodate the immigrants.

There are many reasons why immigrants migrate from their countries to the United States of America. In Nancy Foner’s article, “Immigrants in New York City in the New Millennium”, Nancy explains the many reasons that motivate immigrants to move to different countries. Many immigrants came to America to escape oppressive governments back in their home countries. Some immigrants, mainly the Asians, arrived in influxes into the States after the emigration restrictions were removed in America. Many hear about the economic prosperities and the improved living standards in the community. Some immigrants also came to America because they have friends or family members who live in the country. Immigrants impact the society and get impacted by the society in many ways. New food from the immigrants are introduced into the cities while the immigrants accommodate their living style compared to the American citizens. Certain traditions even tend to change over time, such as South Asian parents having a semi-arranged marriage instead of a fully arranged marriage. Many factors impact how immigrant communities form. Their gender, age, population density, education levels, etc. all impact how the communities develop and what impact the communities have on America as a whole. Many cultural and diverse restaurants are opening up now in the communities, allowing the spread of different cultural cuisine. The culture of immigrants is ever-present in every part of the society. I completely agree with Nancy Foner’s point that immigrants have drastically changed the way the American society is presently. I live in Queens and it is amazing to see all the diverse and ethnic restaurants that line the streets on the way to my house. There are immigrants everywhere speaking in different languages. Now, students in classrooms are expected to learn a language, most likely Spanish. This is proof of the fact that immigrants and their cultures are becoming a major part in the lives of all the people living in America and that they are impacting us in many great ways, making us a true melting pot.

With immigration comes the sense of nationalism and fear sensed by the native citizens of America. In Philip Kasinitz, John H. Mollenkopf, and Mary C. Waters’ article, “The Next Generation Emerges”, the American citizens start to fear that the immigrants are assimilating too quickly into the community. They are taking up a lot of jobs and gaining high degrees for the work field, making them competitors with the citizens for the jobs. However, there are still many immigrants who are joining the labor force compared to white citizens, making the immigrant children more likely to join the labor force even if they try to avoid it. Many of the second- generation children tend to not be interested in politics of America. However, the young population is now slowly forming leaders of student groups and nonprofit organizations. In the article, the authors make a point that people who live in multiethnic neighborhoods like Jackson Heights and Queens are more comfortable with ethnic and racial diversity. In other areas of the city, people are more sensitive and cautious to ethnic diversity. I find this point to be very true. As a child, I was raised in Jackson Heights until I moved to Queens and lived the rest of my teenage years there. I always had very diverse neighbors that I lived near to and I always accepted racial diversity. Going to different areas outside of the Queens area, I become more aware of the change in attitude toward immigrants in a negative way. People seem more hesitant to approach immigrants even though meeting immigrants could help the citizens learn more about different cultures of the world. Even though immigrants are making great progress in assimilating into the culture of America, there are still many difficulties to overcome in American society.

1) Velcoli mainly focuses on what being an “American” means by analyzing American history. He opens with the idea that America is formed by states rather than one unified mass, which later connects into his ending concept of cultural pluralism. He formats his essay by studying the formation of the country and the challenge of its acceptance of fundamental Enlightenment ideas. This leads into the progression of America attempting to take control of its immigrant population in the upcoming decades and evolving theories of how immigrants integrate into society. He divides immigration into America’s earliest settlers (English Protestants, which become the majority, ruling class) and the 1(1841-1980),2(1891-1920),3(1960-present) waves of immigrants. He juxtaposes original American ideals and the concept of birthrights, specifically “all men are created equal,” with later nativist policies and restrictive immigration policies that would bar Native Americans, Chinese, and darker people. He explores 3 theories of the “Americanization” of immigrants: Assimilation, Melting Pot (both failed), and Cultural Pluralism. He regarded assimilation as the hegemony inflicting their power over others and results in a racial caste system. The Melting Pot theory, creating a new race/culture through the mixture of all immigrants, never really happened. His last and resounding theory is Cultural Pluralism, in which people live together, while maintaining their core culture.

I appreciate his analysis of America’s viewpoint of immigrants throughout history, but he delves to deeply into a less acceptable theory, assimilation, rather than focus on a more acceptable, applicable theory, Cultural Pluralism.  He is very opinionated, clearly pro-immigrant and liberal, such as his impassioned statements on pg. 17 about immigrants being in the biggest need of humanitarian rights, yet they struggle to overcome the Anglo authority. I understand racism is bad and Americans still believe in similar ideas, but at some point this essay becomes an argument against nativist beliefs and fails at producing a successful counterargument. He directly states “pluralism prevails” and states that “the outcome is much more complicated.” Why does pluralism prevail and what are the complications? And I know that cultural pluralism is a generally new theory, but if it is correct the author should be able to explains how this theory has been working throughout time rather than just briefly mention it at the end. That would definitely be more insightful.

2) These two articles are like my life story. They pretty much give a clear overview into New York society, as immigrants integrate into a new life, and circumstances as a second generation American. Their “studies”affirm a lot of stereotypes, like Asians are good at school, although these studies seem like general interviews and a small group consensus. Generally these reports say that second generation immigrants are becoming the New New York and they are mainly considered American with raising status in position in the job market. They define the upwards climb through high schools, colleges, jobs, and politics -mostly within the confines of their ethnicity. I find Kasinitz’s article interesting because he compares the growth of the immigrant communities to condition of native New Yorkers ( presumably here since the 50’s at least), especially the downturn of native black and hispanic communities. Why is that? Overall, I prefer Foner’s paper because she takes a more detailed, holistic view with many subcategories. Kasinitz seems to be determine to convince that second generation immigrants are straight up American and melded more together, while Foner focuses more the internal struggle with identity and change within ethnic communities. I found the food and child rearing section particularly interesting because it shows the city effecting the people, not the other way around. Is Foner’s study the same as Kasinitz’s? Many of the same references. I love how CUNY is mentioned as an integral part of the city’s progression.

The first reading, by Rudolf J. Vecoli, provided a brief overview of various topics having to do with immigration in the United States. First and foremost, it gave a timeline of when various immigrant groups throughout history arrived, but more importantly, how they were received by the American public. For instance, it discusses how Irish Catholics were persecuted for not only their rowdy behavior, but also for their subscription to the Catholic religion and supposed allegiance to the Pope. The paper brings up, as that example clarifies, a glaring contradiction in the American mindset. This idea is the idea of equality for all, but in practice only certain people are afforded such equality. The paper also discussed the inaccuracy of calling the United States a “melting pot” because of how it implies that more assimilation occurs than what happens in reality.

It seems to me that calling the United States a melting pot is not really very accurate. I would argue that the U.S. is more of a cultural buffet where people can choose as much or as little of different cultures as they want, and altogether ignore and reject some. While it is true that there are certain areas, such as large cosmopolitan cities, where there is indeed more interaction between different cultures, these areas are still often quite segregated.

The second reading discusses, more specifically, immigration in New York City. The paper begins by discussing how different modern immigration to New York City is from the wave that came at the turn of the twentieth century. The reason for the difference is mostly because of the ethnic backgrounds of the immigrants. In the early 1900’s, most immigrants came from Europe, but now people from all over the globe come in large numbers. The reading then discussed immigrants’ connections with their home countries, and the economic outlooks of various immigrant groups. It mentioned that “Russian and European groups in New York City have among the highest levels of education” while “Latin American and Hispanic Caribbean groups” have the lowest. This causes the former groups to have a much easier time finding economic success than the latter ones. The reading also mentions some of the social challenges and prejudices that immigrants, especially dark skinned ones, face.

After living in Manhattan for a few months now, I have really been able to see what this article is talking about. As I have explored various parts of the city, I have noticed different neighborhoods with different ethnic groups, and I have also noticed that different parts of the city are like completely different worlds. Around campus, it is generally not a very wealthy area, and there usually isn’t very much going on in the community. If I go just one stop downtown on the A train, I’m in an affluent cultural hub with shining lights and plenty to do. The segregation here really is very apparent, and I think we, as a community, should aspire to lesson this phenomenon.

The final reading focuses more on second generation, young Americans who are living in New York City. The writers of this reading conducted a study on this population of people, second generation immigrants, and found that they “assimilating into American society very rapidly,” especially when it comes to language. The writers found that these second generation immigrants have little concern with the homeland of their parents, and many have not even visited. Like the previous reading, this one mentions how descendants of dark skinned immigrants report feeling discriminated against, even by the city’s police force. The reading also discusses the education of this group of people, as well as the jobs they seek. It brings up that many of the immigrant groups are struggling to succeed in the city’s system, while the higher educated Chinese and Russians are even more successful than native whites and blacks.

As someone who didn’t experience the New York City K-12 public school system, I am not looking at this issue from a place of familiarity. However, from what the reading said, it seems that something must be done to figure out why there is a difference in success between different groups of immigrants, and something should be done to address it.

The three texts, “The Significance of Immigration in the Formation of an American Identity,” “The Next Generation Emerges,” and “One Out of Three: Immigrant New York in the 21^st Century,” written by Vecoli, Kasinitz, and Foner correspondingly all brought up many significant issues, themes and ideas. Coming from a family of immigrants, I can relate to many of the topics discussed by the three writers. It is interesting to read about the different perspectives surrounding assimilation of immigrants to American culture, the future of the American-born second generation, the tensions that exist with regards to immigration law reform and the effect that immigrants have had on New York City. An idea that was common in all three pieces of writing is that immigration affects both the immigrants and the place they immigrate to. Culture and tradition are part of everyone’s identity, so it is understandable that they would influence American culture. The United States is comprised of people from so many different places, with different cultures, and perspectives of life it is almost impossible to come up with a uniform outlook.

In “The Significance of Immigration in the Formation of an American Identity,” Vecoli addresses immigration, starting from the immigration of the British to the New World and how the migration of different peoples over time has drastically changed American society. He mentions that, “America has always been a complex, ethnic mosaic divided into segregated, quarrelsome groups by culture, language, religion and race” (Vecoli). This phrase is true in so many ways. Although the United States prides itself in saying that all men are created equal and that everyone is welcome to join the melting pot, the reality is that there are many issues and tensions surrounding equality and acceptance of individuals as U.S. citizens. Throughout many years, different groups of people, including slaves, Native Americans, Asians, and more recently Hispanics have been stigmatized by Anglo Americans for being different and have consciously (or subconsciously) been divided into groups that struggle socioeconomically. People come to the United States from all over the world, thinking that they can make their lives better only to find out that they cannot make as much progress as they would want because of their race, ethnicity, or religious affiliation among other things. These problems make me question the effectiveness of the Enlightenment ideals that are often linked to the founding processes and the way this country functions. Different people in different periods of time will interpret ideals in ways that will be convenient to them. This is clear in the phrases, all men are created equal and life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. When America’s founding fathers proclaimed these phrases to the public they were referring to liberating themselves from British oppression. They did not even think about people of African descent and whether or not they should be considered equal. However, during the Civil Rights Movement, those same phrases were used by activists to fight for black rights.

An interesting idea brought up by Vecoli is the change that has occurred in the American naturalization process. The process in the eighteenth and nineteenth century was extremely simple (if you were a WASP). However, once the waves of immigrants started to arrive, things became more complicated. America was introduced to people that had different ways of cooking, different religions, different educations and different political and economic ideologies. All of this made Americans realize that immigration and naturalization policies followed by a country are key to its understanding of self-conception as a nation. By determining whom to admit to residence and citizenship, the government defines the future ethnic and racial composition of the population. It is important to note that many Americans do not approve of unrestricted immigration because of a threat to the stability of the social order and a change in the national identity. However, in many occasions, they have allowed immigration to occur because it is convenient for them. I have family members in this country who are housekeepers and they are exploited, working more than twelve hours a day and earning less than minimum wage per hour. Why….because they are undocumented. Who benefits from this? Their bosses. This example is used to show how America has not really done anything to address immigration because the U.S. needs illegal immigration in the same way it needed slavery two hundred years ago to thrive economically. Many American citizens argue that illegal immigrants or even first generation Americans take away jobs from the market that would otherwise go to a native citizen, which is why they should be deported back to their countries and not be given residency or citizenship. But what they forget is that, they too in one way or another take advantage of the exploitation of these people and that at one point one of their ancestors was an immigrant.

The controversy surrounding the idea of assimilation of immigrants into American society has also caught my attention because it is interesting to see how some people feel that once a person moves to the U.S. he/she should stop using his/her native language, forget about their customs and traditions and adjust to American culture. But what is American culture? No two people would be able to give the same response. The fact is that the United States is like a heterogeneous mixture. It is composed of so many different ideologies. Nothing in the U.S. is unique only to it, besides its history. Holidays celebrated in the U.S. are celebrated elsewhere, languages spoken in the U.S. are spoken elsewhere, even foods cooked in the U.S. come from other places. I understand the fact that immigrants should learn the language, but only with the idea that it would make their lives easier in mind. Many do not learn not because they do not want to, but because they have other responsibilities that they must address first. In class we talked about how some believe that people who immigrated before 1965 were less lazy than immigrants today because they assimilated into society quickly and more efficiently. I think that if anything, today’s immigrants are more hardworking because they have had to abandon their homogenous country and come to a multiculturalist country, where many times they do not feel welcomed to work and make progress in life.

In “The Next Generation Emerges,” Kasinitz addresses the issue of what sort of New Yorkers immigrants are and what sort of New Yorkers they are creating. This article goes into an in-depth analysis of the American-born second generation and compares them to the generation of white and black natives. I find it interesting how something that makes New York unique is the fact that there are white and black people who are children of immigrants or immigrants themselves. I remember in kindergarten being in ESL with only white children. I could not understand why they needed help with English. I had ignorantly believed that all whites should automatically know English like I knew Spanish. But it was there that I learned otherwise. An interesting issue this article raises is the fact that Chinese and Russian Jewish second generations were more successful at graduating from college in four years and getting a good job, than their Hispanic and black colleagues. I guess it has to do with assimilation to American society in some cases. I also think that race and socioeconomic background come into play. If I come from a stable and united family unit, I will be able to succeed. However, if I come from an unstable family, I will most likely fail. Support is also very important.

In his article, Kasinitz says that “particularly the children of poor and racially stigmatized labor migrants will find themselves increasingly isolated from opportunities in the mainstream economy” (Kasinitz). I completely agree with this statement. How can a person make progress in life if he is stuck in a “rut”? Kasinitz further presents the idea that a person who is a part time student and a part time worker will take longer to graduate and have low income and weak labor attachment. This is true, people should concentrate on one thing. But sometimes the situation is such that a person is forced to work. Who can prevent that? Some have the opportunity to just study and do well, while others don’t. This creates an unpreventable disparity. Another interesting idea discussed in this text is that of “immigrant jobs” and how the second generation does not want to ever have jobs like that. I agree with this on a personal level. I admire my parents for working as hard as they do for the family’s well being but I would never want their jobs.

Some last important remarks that I would like address from this article are the fact that many people think that immigrants who grew up in the U.S. and second generation young people will never become assimilated to American society and will always have that sense of loyalty to their parents’ native country. However, like Kasinitz said in his article, research and analysis shows otherwise. As it turns out, second generation young people are doing as well as their native colleagues. They have learned the English language and the American culture and traditions. Many of them have never been to their parents’ homeland and some cannot even speak their parents’ native language. It is true that many immigration debates are only focused on recent arrivals. No one takes notice of the intergenerational progress and rapid assimilation that occurs in the majority of the cases. What makes these people different from people who had parents who were born in the U.S. is that they do not have parental and familial resources to fall back on. Members of the 1.5 generation have it even worse because they take advantage of all the educational opportunities in their reach but are denied basic rights. Many do not have a political or legal voice. Although DACA has provided help, it has not taken out all these people from their “rut.”

In “Immigrants in New York City in the New Millennium,” Foner provides a general background on the immigration of the last fifty years and the special features that New York has as an immigrant city. She points out the factors that shape the experiences of immigrants in New York and the ways that they are changing the city. She is explicit at pointing out common themes as well as differences among immigrant groups. Lastly she raises some questions about patterns in the future. In the beginning she explains where exactly people are coming from and the general reasons why they choose to migrate from their countries. An idea that I think is very interesting is the fact that many times, the U.S. grants admission to particular groups as refugees. This action makes the United States seem like a very welcoming and humanitarian nation. But once these people arrive at the U.S., they begin to see how hard it is to make progress in this nation. There are many socioeconomic barriers between a person and economic success.

When my parents immigrated to this country, they felt alone and isolated from the rest of society. The only way my parents could fill in that emptiness they had was to stay in touch with family back in Ecuador. So when I read that often times immigrants stay in touch with relatives in Foner’s text, I took it as a method used by them to remain connected with their homeland and little by little adjust to a new place. It is interesting to note how premigration values, attitudes, and customs do not go away. That is why today we still see people trying to force their children into arranged marriages or into a religion they do not necessarily agree with. Making the children follow what the parents follow gives many parents a feeling that not everything was lost when they left home. But what parents do not consider are the effects that this has on their children. I also agree with the idea that the advancement of technology has eased the assimilation process for many. Nowadays the only thing you need is a smart phone and a Wi-Fi connection, and you can see your friend on the other side of the world face to face.

Another idea that I find interesting is that it is very easy to come up with stereotypes for different things including a race’s association with certain types of jobs, ways of thinking, certain sectors of a country, etc. Sometimes I do not understand why some people associate these things with inferiority. They should be happy that they are taking small steps for a better life. The particular migration of a race to a specific area in a place is quite understandable. In the beginning and sometimes for a long period of time, people like to live amongst others that have similar ideologies as they do. Although in the long run, interacting with different people is beneficial, in the beginning it is hard to do.

The effect immigration has had on institutions in the U.S. is also very awesome. The American Catholic Church, as an example, is very diverse and liberal in many senses. It has had to make itself appealable to people that have different cultures and speak different languages. In conclusion, immigrants are not only influenced by the social, political and economic forces in New York City, but are agents of change in the city. The changes that they have brought on the city are very important and historical. Overall, it has made many New Yorkers open-minded in the sense that they can acknowledge that there is a world out there with people who are very different than they are.

The three readings were very insightful about the complex idea of immigration throughout American immigration. Although all three readings talked about the various immense waves of immigrants into America, the Vecoli reading was the most descriptive in an historical sense. The other two readings of Foner and Kasinitz talked primarily about the current issues related to Immigration today.

An interesting concept that was mentioned throughout the readings was assimilation and melting pot. But, these terms were cleverly mentioned differently between two readings particularly. In my opinion, Vecoli’s reading was very eye- opening because it was brief and concise explaining the true hardships of immigrations in the past. Vecoli’s main purpose was to identify the American identity, but he concluded that it can not be declared a single entity because it is continuously changing. However, Vecoli “clarified” that the true definition of melting pot and assimilation was to eradicate all the ethnic characteristics that made you unique, in order to “assimilate” into a person accepted by the angle-saxon white people part of the elite hegemony. Vecoli was concise in stating that the melting pot and assimilation was a complete fallacy. The immigrants were forced to change themselves in order to cope with society dominated by the white elite.

On the other hand, Kasinitz clarified the terms melting pot and assimilation in a different connotation. However, Kasinitz’s clarification resembles our current situation today. According to Kasinitz, New York is a melting pot with various ethnic groups assimilated into a conglomeration of various traditions. Despite Vecoli’s description of “false assimilation,” Kasinitz stated how New York is a mix of multiple ethnic groups, which truly comprises the true definition of melting pot, as seen today. As time has progressed, the concepts of assimilation and melting pot were finally fulfilled. As seen today with 1st generation and mostly 2nd generation immigrants, they have assimilated into the American culture by primarily learning to speak English along with other traditions they have adapted over time. But, the difference is that these immigrants can still grasp onto their ethnic backgrounds, compared to the past, when the elite white eradicated the immigrants relationship to their ethnic background to become fully incorporated into a white American.

The third reading by Foner, similar to Kasinitz, mainly emphasized the influences of immigrants on New York, and the influence of New York on the immigrants. The immigrants in the present, have assimilated into New York life seamlessly. New York, with its high demand of labor, attracts the immigrants due to its availability of jobs. But, due to recent economic hardships, it is becoming more difficult, and the problem of job shortages is still being coped with. Immigrants have impacted the NYC largely, for example Little Italy, Chinatown, etc. Immigrants also impact the public education system, especially CUNY, which does an impeccable job giving the opportunity to immigrants to get an education. Other parts of the city that are affected include hospitals, library, and museums. Ultimately, America has started opening up to multinationalism country, with immigrants coming from even more places like Central America, South America, and the Caribbean. However, incorporation of immigrants still remains a problem for both the city and the nation.

The Significance of Immigration in the Formation of an American Identity by Rudolph J. Vecoli

Vecoli does an impressive job of summarizing the progression of the American Identity while also highlighting the important role immigration has played in its creation. He notes the transformation of the ideals pertaining to immigration and foreign peoples, from those surrounding the already diversified population of early America, to the enactment of immigration quota systems, to the general acceptance of pluralism. I find that Vecoli does a sound job at detailing multiple (even opposing) points of view, allowing for the reader to look at the development of an American Identity through a wide lens. The friction between strong, opposing ideals of the American Identity has existed nearly since birth of America. In fact, it is arguable that America was born from this. While England wished to maintain a strong influence (economically, politically and even socially) over the thirteen colonies, the colonists have developed their own culture, their own identity. Believing that they should live free of oppression, they decided to create a country that was rooted in that ideal. However, as the country grew, the attempt to create a singular, unique identity went against this very idea. And, as a result, different groups and sects arose, each one proposing its own sentiment on what a true American is and their plan to enforce that belief.

Thanks to this reading, I can finally place a term to my own beliefs on immigration and the American Identity: Pluralism. For a while, and even more so as I read this excerpt, I also questioned the idea of America being a “melting pot.” While a melting pot may be a concoction of various yet individual parts, its purpose is to use these parts to create something new. This is the problem with configuring a single American Identity. There is a lack of clarity on what the melting pot should create. Should there be a single American race or an overall acceptance of all races? In the end, I find myself following mainly transcultural ideals as opposed to nativist ones.

Immigrants in New York City in the New Millenium by Nancy Foner

While Vecoli’s writing focused on the effects of immigration on creating an American Identity, Foner decided to hone in on something much more local: immigration and the “New York Identity.” By that I refer to Foner’s vivid illustrations of the intertwined relationship between immigration and the culture of NYC. She begins by noting the biggest pull that NYC offered to immigrants: having friends and family members already living here. While several push factors may have existed in home countries, having familiar faces made the transition bearable and even appealing. She goes on to mention how NYC is a close knit immigrant city, with immigrants existing in families up to 3 or 4 generations ago. Immigrants, and children of immigrants, also appear widely in the city, including government positions. They are not localized. Although she does mention that certain professions are stereotypical for certain ethnicities, she also shows how newer and educated immigrants are able to attain better jobs. Various education systems, CUNY being one that is mentioned, have made this possible. Finally, a noticeable theme is how immigrants have added to the overall culture of NYC. Out of neighborhoods that house various ethnic groups, things such as the cuisine, places of worship and business have been established and enjoyed by the community.

One line from Foner truly stood out to me. It was, “New York is also appealing because outsiders do not stand out.” If one needed proof to support the “Melting Pot” idea, he or she should look toward NYC. Even though it has a distinct culture, this culture can be enjoyed by anyone, without the requirement of abandoning his or her own traditions. It seems that while an American Identity cannot be established, a New York one has.

The Next Generation Emerges by Philip Kasinitz, John H. Mollenkopf, Mary C. Waters

The city is ours for the taking, or so this excerpt suggests. Although many immigrants live in New York, the article notes that it is the second generation (or in some cases the “1.5 generation” referring to people who emigrated at a young age) who will play an influential role in this city’s future. This piece notes how the culture among this generation is unique. The generation has assimilated quickly, and even has identified themselves not merely an Americans, but also as New Yorkers. Though the generation may share a common culture, some racial separations exist, as seen through education, social and political situations. I found it interesting how cultural ideals could exist even in something as ordinary as school. While I was aware that at times, certain ethnic groups excelled over others academically, I never focused on the cultural affect. The type of school, its benefits, and even its location were subject to cultural ideals. Moving on to jobs, I found it noteworthy that children of immigrants generally do not take “immigrant jobs,” with some even refusing low wage or nonmainstream professions. I question if it is an idea that is instilled by their parents’ principles or something relating to the second-generation NYC culture. The excerpt argues that any dramatic economic turns can harshly affect the second-generation. It is an idea that I have never truly considered. Those of the second-generation who have encountered success do not truly have a safety net. Odds are they have moved on further than their parents. Cutbacks even in education can take a toll on the emerging generation.

One theme I identified throughout this reading was the parental effect on children. Although my generation will have the most influence over NYC’s future, each of us is subject to our own parent’s influence. From their personal and cultural ideals to even their legal status, parents have an affect over the decisions we make, ergo over the city.

In the first article, “The Significance of Immigration in the Formation of an American Identity” by Rudolph J. Vecoli, the author focuses on how the American Identity is always changing due to the large waves of immigrants that have come from all over the world to America, the most recent one starting in the late 1960s. He talks about the different views on being a “nation” that have come over time and what it means to belong in a nation. The majority of the original colonists were Protestant Englishmen that, through Enlightenment ideals, formed the United States of America. Those that were born on American soil would have the birthright of being an American citizen, and foreigners had the option of becoming citizens through naturalization. Although this is a new and progressive idea, it was also unprogressive in the fact that these ideals only corresponded to only “a free white person.” In reality, America, from the first day, was a nation divided in groups by culture, religion, and race.

The article makes me uneasy with the fact that there have always been nativist movements that try to prevent immigrant influence on the American identity. There has been a constant cycle of hate towards new immigrants because the native’s feel that the immigrants don’t bring any good qualities with them. This happened the Irish Catholic when they came, the Chinese, Southern/Eastern Europeans, and now Latin Americans. It baffles me that people fear change in the American identity when it began as just a concept of sovereignty towards the American government. Breeding this hate towards the newcomers just increases racism and discrimination without actually trying to solve the problem. In present time, there is a lot of hate towards Latinos for taking jobs, but instead of hating Latinos, there should be a movement to prevent corporations from being allowed to abuse the workers’ legal status to acquire cheap labor without  providing them any benefits.

The studies done in “Immigrants In New York City in the New Millennium” and “The Next Generation Emerges” also interested me because of the responses that some of the 2^nd generation Americans gave. In both they stated that they wouldn’t want to work where their parents worked because of the bad conditions and bad pay. They also did not want to work in the same field because it was stereotypical for a person of their race to work there. There is a feeling of resentment to that job because it has a negative association with their race. There is also some interpersonal racism for some of African ancestry. It is painful for them to be identified by the public as “black” instead of African, Jamaican, or West Indian. It is unsettling that being perceived as this causes lackluster opportunities in education and employment. New York City may not have the most nativist ideology, but it still has prejudice and discrimination in its street, and fortunately the newest generations of Americans have been able to use this ethnic diversity to further themselves, and, at the same time, improve the city.

Through all this hate, many of these foreigners of different backgrounds have been able to rally their communities to participate in local government so that they have a voice in how they are treated. The 2^nd generation Americans are more accepting of each other and they see that having a foreign background is a positive thing. I hope that fellow children of immigrants are able to learn from the past to improve the nation that we call home, and to escape the cycle of mistreating the newest waves of immigrants. In the past, attempting to force an American identity has resulted in bad situations for whole generations of people.

Immigration has increased significantly over the years. In the mid 1900s, New York City consisted of mainly Europeans. In the 2000s, however, it consisted mainly of people from Latin America, Caribbean and Asia. Immigrants are attracted to New York due to better employment, wages and living standards. In some circumstances people are forced to migrate to other regions of the world due to political instability and oppression. For example, Liberians had to leave their homes because of the civil wars taking place.

An interesting idea about immigration is that it can never stop. Once one person immigrates to New York then his/her friends would want to follow and so on. Families and friends want to stay together so they follow each other to where ever they are going, Another factor that induces people to migrate is that there are long established ethnic communities that would welcome them. For example, West Indians settle in New York because there is a long established West Indian community.

As more and more immigrants come to New York then ethnic communities will expand. What is strange about this phenomenon is that even though there will be denser ethnic settlements there will also be a rise to polyethnic neighborhoods. This is contributed to the fact of public transit runs through most of the dense ethnic communities. This mixes all the ethnicities currently residing in New York and thus gives rise to multiethnic neighborhoods.

The government also provides services that can assist immigrants in establishing a more stable lifestyle. There are a range of social, health, and educational services. One example is CUNY. CUNY is an affordable education that is offered to basically everyone. CUNY also offers programs such as SEEK that helps families with lower income. The government is influencing immigrants to not only stay but also to contribute to the society.

Immigrants that reside in New York sometimes contribute to political affairs. For example, Mayor Bloomberg made trips to Israel and the Dominican Republic to gain votes from the immigrant population that lives in New York. Political leaders are recognizing the impact of immigrants as individuals in society due to the constant increase in the number of immigrants.

The longer immigrants stay in New York the more they adapt to the American culture. People refer this to a term called the melting pot effect  which is a mixing of a group of ethnically diverse people to form a new race, the American race. I personally, disagree with this concept because I think it is just another form of assimilating. Immigrants are slowly adapting to the American culture and with each generation they become more Americanized. But what does being American actually mean? Well, doing what an American would do. However, how do we know what a typical American would do. I think this idea of being an American is generated through the media. The media emphasizes sports like American football and foods like hamburgers. Doing all of these things does not make someone an American. I think just living in American makes you an American.

Whenever the talk of immigration and “what generation of American are you” arises, I always feel it is hard to pinpoint where my family and I fit in. Going by my father’s paternal side, I would be a sixth generation American. My great, great, great grandfather was an Irish Catholic immigrant who arrived in America right before the Civil War. His son would go on to be one of the many European immigrants who worked on the Holland Tunnel. On my mother’s side though, my grandfather emigrated from Italy to America in the 1940s. These familial ties really give me an outsider’s perspective on many of the topics mentioned throughout the three articles, mainly because I am so far removed from the effects of immigration and assimilation. The only connection I do have is that on both my parent’s sides, surnames that were too complicated were changed. I don’t have any experience with a giving up or blending of culture (depending on your point of view) since my ethnic background isn’t too close to me. When I am asked what I consider my background to be, I usually just say American.

I think my lack of background plays into what my definition of “a melting pot” is. Unlike the many attackers in the Vecoli article, I never felt a “melting pot” meant that many unique cultures were melted down to try to create one assimilated culture. Like a classmate had also mentioned, I always felt a melting pot was more of a stew, where all these different cultures would meet and exchange ideas and celebrations, further enriching each unique one. My interpretation is not based on any personal experience of my own, but more on what I have seen. Growing up in Brooklyn, I was never under the impression that certain peoples kept to themselves. I felt there were always exchanges between many different people with many different backgrounds happening on every block that I walked down. A great example of this is illustrated by Avenue U, a street that runs along through a large part of Brooklyn. If you travel far enough down Avenue U, you can see many different cultures coexisting; English storefronts shift to Chinese storefronts which continue to shift to Russian storefronts. It truly is a sight to see.

Something that caught my attention in the Nancy Foner article was how many different culturally distinct neighborhoods are only minutes away from where I live. I live in a small neighborhood in south Brooklyn that contains people of mostly Irish, Italian, German and Jewish descent. Meanwhile, a few blocks away is the neighborhood of Flatbush, which contains a large community of peoples with different Caribbean cultures. Also right near me are the neighborhoods of Sheepshead Bay and Brighton beach. According to the article, both of these neighborhoods have large communities of Russian Jews, many of which helped change and revitalize large sections of the neighborhood. I knew about these neighborhoods well before this class, but I never saw them as culturally distinct. The Russian pool halls of Brighton Beach and the “West Indian network of privatized passenger vans,” more commonly known as Dollar Vans, always felt like the normal blend of culture that is Brooklyn, New York.

Mohamed Mohamed

As an immigrant, much of what was said in the readings is very relatable. People first migrated to the New World for political, economic, and even religious reasons. The same reasons continue to drive thousands of immigrants into the United States. My grandfather first moved to the United States seeking economic stability. He managed to bring my father over a couple years later. After spending more than a decade in the States my father thought that it was time to bring the family. The initial intent was that this was just a vacation, then its back to life in Yemen. However, the educational opportunities made it clear that we settle in.

Like the readings mentioned, settling in in New York City was not difficult for us. We were quickly welcomed by Arab immigrants and were directed to apartments where we can find our communities. . We then lived in a small community that shared the same culture and religion. Our neighbors were from the same country and some were even from the same village. Our friends were of the same faith and spoke the same language. We all even had the same goal: to become important people of society and not just taxi drivers and store clerks.

One dilemma that the readings barely went over is the identity crisis that young immigrants go through. For example, the readings extensively speak about the adult immigrants and the second-generation immigrants. How the US-born immigrants are more willing to embrace an American culture while their parents still dream of going back to their mother country. However, the immigrants that came to the states at a very young age were not much represented in the texts. I first arrived to New York when I was seven years of age. Since then I never went back to where I was born. I lived most of my life in America but I still have childhood memories that make Yemen dear to me. Furthermore, I find myself trapped between being either too “Americanized” or not “American enough”. For example, when I entered the Grocery store the other day the guy on the register had a really difficult time noticing that we were from the same country. I eventually had to break the ice and said something in Arabic. His facial expression was that of disappointment. He and many other Yemenis I met think that I have lost my “true” culture and tradition and that I am too “Americanized” based on the way I dress or talk. On the other hand when people notice me praying in the park or when I have a hard time pronouncing a four syllable word I suddenly become un-American.

Nonetheless everything else said about immigrants and New York City being the most diverse place on earth was very well written. Truly as a New Yorker one must embrace and accept this diversity. It is this diversity that makes New York so great and it is this diversity that keeps attracting more immigrants.

What does it mean to be an American? That was the question that was going through my mind as I was reading the essays. To be honest, I don’t know what the real answer is, but I have thought about this question multiple times. Last year in the Arts in New York City class, I went to the Museum of Chinese in America for my final presentation. This museum has an exhibition that focuses on the Chinese American experience from early trade to today. It showed the particularly rocky experience of Chinese Americans and how they dealt with the discrimination and exclusion. One of the questions that was raised by the exhibition was, what does it mean to be an American?

“You are American by birth.” It’s a notion saying that, if a person is born on American soil, that person is automatically an American. This is a really neat concept, but this didn’t really apply to the Chinese Americans during the exclusion period. Even if they were native born, Chinese citizens had to carry their identification papers everywhere they went, or they would risk deportation. A Chinese American that was given citizenship at that time was not treated as one. It seemed really odd to me when I read that the Americans at that time were complaining about immigrant groups not assimilating when they were actively denying Chinese Americans a place in society. This discrimination and exclusion towards Chinese Americans pushed Chinese Americans to form their own communities which maintains stronger ties to their homeland than many other immigrant groups.

To the Chinese Americans, there were no melting pot. Chinese Americans were just an ingredient deemed unworthy to even enter the pot. That was until the exclusion period ended. Chinatown opened up to the rest of society and it was the first view of Chinese Americans. Chinatown was a popular destination for tourism, grocery, and “exotic” Chinese food. Chinese cuisine was changed. Dishes such as chop suey or kung pao chicken aren’t genuine Chinese food, but were created for the purpose of attracting customers. That is what I believe it means to be American. It means a group coming into a society and responding to the society to create a unique culture that incorporates both the cultures of the homeland and the new society.

Being a second-generation American myself, I found the messages in both “The Next Generation Emerges” and “Immigrants in New York City in the New Millennium” of particular interest. My dad came to America about 30 years ago from Peru in search of a more successful life and someways down the road I was born. Though I was born here and am technically American, I’ve always considered my self Peruvian when asked about. However, that’s not to say that I don’t have my own identity as an American. I feel blessed that I can have multiple identities. As the second-generation born Russian woman in Kasinitz’s article pointed out I “like being able to keep and appreciate those things in my culture that I enjoy and that I think are beautiful, and, at the same time, being able to change those thing which I think are bad.” The result is a unique blending of identities like the one that is so often glorified through the image of a melting pot.

Though I think the melting pot image is an appropriate one, I disagree with how it has developed throughout our nation’s history. As Vecoli points out in “The Significance of Immigration in the Formation of an American Identity,” all too often the idea of a melting pot has been used to strip immigrants of their identities from their home countries. Instead of mixing together all cultures into a beautiful new American culture, the melting pot is used to force the assimilation of immigrants into a culture deemed acceptable by a hegemony.

It is true, Vecoli adds, that this old image of a melting pot is begging to fade and people are immigrants are now maintaining stronger ties to their respective cultures, but the end result is not there yet. I really like the image put forth by Horace Kallen of an orchestra where “ethnic group is the natural instrument… and the harmony and dissonances and discords of them all make up the symphony of civilization.” This is the ideal future that I think we should all strive for. One of the best parts of America is this blending of cultures in a way that no other nation can hope to compete with. And it is for the reason that I can’t quite comprehend why there seems to be anxiety throughout America over the idea of a declining white majority and an increasing mixed minority. If anything, this should signify that we are finally beginning to reach this end goal of a perfectly blended culture where the distinctions between majority and minority no longer exist.

I also found it really interesting in Kasinitz’s article how he illustrated the shift of mentality from first generation immigrants to second generation immigrants. The article mentions that second generation immigrants aren’t willing to settle for the jobs currently occupied by their parents. Most second generation immigrants see those jobs as “immigrant jobs” and would rather distance themselves from that mentality. I believe that this is a good thing because it means that firstly, they no longer see themselves as immigrants but in fact Americans with a dual identity, and secondly, by not settling for mediocrity, they are setting themselves up to be something more and will most likely significantly contribute to the progression of civilization as a whole.

Its almost exciting to think that our potential as a nation has not yet been reached. There is still so much left for us to strive for in terms of society and civilization. Granted, our ancestors strayed a little off track with their efforts at assimilation, but we now have the chance to create a new American identity through a blending of various cultures where there will no longer be a majority or a minority, but instead one people.