The Cyberknife System: On Par with Increasing Cancer Patients’ Survival Rates When Compared to Other Treatment Techniques
Ariana Gopal
Three of the primary methods for killing off cancerous cells in a person’s body are chemotherapy, surgery, and various forms of radiation therapy. Chemotherapy targets all rapidly producing cells in a person’s body and is generally prescribed in the form of a drug; it is often used in cases where an individual’s cancer has spread (also known as metastasis). In contrast, surgery and radiation therapy are more specifically targeted toward cancerous lesions in a localized region of the body. Surgical procedures are invasive and are geared toward physically cutting out cancerous masses. Radiation therapy uses radiation waves to specifically target cancer cells. In comparison to chemotherapy, radiation therapy is localized and noninvasive, essentially making it less toxic to the body. In comparison to surgery, radiation therapy will not put patients in remission for extended periods of time. With advancements in radiosurgery, like the Cyberknife, radiation therapy is becoming more precise and offering patients the treatment they need for their cancer in fewer treatments.
The goal of this research was to explore the impact of Cyberknife treatment on patients with cancer outside of the nervous system, as well as to compare the effectiveness of radiosurgery versus other typical treatment methods. Two of the articles specifically focused on hepatocellular carcinoma, a type of cancer that effects the liver. One traced survival rates 1-3 years after patients received surgery; survival rates were 88.5%, 73.1%, and 69.2% for traditional surgery, whereas those for the Cyberknife were 72.7%, 66.7%, and 57.1% (Zhuang et al., 2013). This article indicated that traditional surgery prolonged the survival of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma over Cyberknife surgery, although these results were not considered significant (Zhuang et al., 2013). The article evaluating different treatments on hepatocellular carcinoma focused on external beam radiation therapy in comparison to chemoembolization and resection techniques. In contrast to the previous article, the median survival rate and 1-year survival rates were 8 months and 34.8% in the radiation group, and 4 months and 11.4% in the non-radiation group, indicative that radiation therapy had a better impact on improving the survival rates of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma over other treatment techniques (Zeng et al., 2005). In a study comparing Cyberknife radiosurgery to traditional surgery for a type of lung cancer, patients receiving Cyberknife had a 95% overall survival rate after 3 years, in comparison to 80% in the surgery group (Chang et al., 2015). A study exploring radiosurgery and traditional surgery indicated that both had an average 1-year survival rate of 60% for patients with brain tumors (O’Neill et al., 2003). Although both groups had similar survival rates, the chance of recurrence was significantly less for the radiosurgery group (O’Neill et al., 2003). Similar survival rates were also noted in a study comparing radiosurgery to more traditional radiation therapy, reporting 91% and 88% 6-year survival rates, respectively, for patients being treated for prostate cancer (Ricco et al., 2016).
As indicated by the studies above, there are clearly mixed results when comparing radiosurgery techniques like the Cyberknife system to other treatment methods, predominantly traditional surgery. One of the studies indicated that the system was worse than other techniques, two had very similar survival rates, and those that showed a higher survival rate for patients treated with the Cyberknife system did not report statistical significance. Overall, it appears that the Cyberknife system is on par with other techniques, surgery in particular, when it comes to treating various types of cancer. In the future, it could be helpful to specifically focus on the effects of the Cyberknife system on one specific type of cancer. Focusing this way can make it clearer whether or not the Cyberknife system is an effective way of treating a specific kind of cancer. Additionally, the cost-effect ratio for this system can also be explored in future research.
Figure 1 Shows a three-dimensional image created by the Cyberknife system with the different angles at which radiosurgical waves will be hitting the target location. This picture depicts the Cyberknife targeting the liver. (Protocol, n.d.)
References
Protocol for Cyberknife Treatment of Limited Liver Metastases. (n.d.).
Quality of Life Surveys from Head and Neck Cancer Survivors: The Need for a Standard
Swathi Mettela
MHC Science Forward
Professor Kowach
26 September 2016
Quality of Life Surveys from Head and Neck Cancer Survivors: The Need for a Standard
Head and neck cancers (HNC) currently make up 3% of all cancers in the United States. The American Cancer Society estimates over 60,000 new HNC cancer cases and over 500,000 HNC survivors in the U.S. this year. Studies are often conducted to evaluate the extent of physical and psychosocial survivorship issues in HNC survivors. As these issues are not always quantitatively measurable, quality of life surveys are completed by the survivor to establish a numerical value for their overall wellness. While this subjective surveying method has become necessary when determining someone’s quality of life, the results of these surveys are being misused to draw inaccurate conclusions about survivorship issues in HNC survivors.
In a 2001 study the health related quality of life was measured in HNC survivors three years removed from their last treatment. Three different quality of life surveys (SF-36 health survey, EORTC QLQ-C30 version 1.0, and EORTC QLQ-H&N35) were used to evaluate a survivor’s overall quality of life. SF-36 health survey consists of 8 divisions of health: “physical health, role limitations due to physical problems, bodily pain, general health, vitality , social functioning, role limitations due to emotional problems, mental health and perceived change of health during the last year.” EORTC QLQ-C30 version 1.0 evaluates the survivor’s quality of life using five functioning scales (physical functioning, role functioning, emotional functioning, cognitive functioning, and social functioning), three symptom scales (fatigue, nausea and vomiting, and pain), and a global health scale. EORTC QLQ-H&N35 is a tomr specific survey comprised of seven subscales: pain, swallowing, senses, speech, social eating, social contact, and sexuality. (Hammerlid)
Figure 1.Question 1 on SF-36 shows how survivors subjectively quantify their health
In 2004 similar research was conducted to examine the quality of life of HNC survivors. In this study, four subjective surveys (UWQOL, PSS-HN, FACT-G, and FACT-H&N) were used to determine someone’s overall quality of life. UWQOL evaluates a survivor’s quality of life within the time span of the last seven days. PSS-HN is completed by the physician and examines three aspects of life: Normalcy of Diet, Eating in Public, and Understandability of Speech. FACT-G and FACT-H&N both refer to quality of four aspects of life (physical well-being, social/family well-being, emotional well-being, and functional well-being) in the last seven days. (Campbell)
Although there are established surveys in academia and medicine to measure a survivor’s quality of life after HNC, having multiple standards is just as ineffective as having no standard.
Citations:
Bjordal, K., De Graeff, A., Fayers, P. M., Hammerlid, E., van Pottelsberghe, C., Curran, D., … &
Söderholm, A. L. (2000). A 12 country field study of the EORTC QLQ-C30 (version 3.0)
and the head and neck cancer specific module (EORTC QLQ-H&N35) in head and neck
patients. European Journal of Cancer, 36(14), 1796-1807.
Brazier, J. E., Harper, R., Jones, N. M., O’cathain, A., Thomas, K. J., Usherwood, T., &
Westlake, L. (1992). Validating the SF-36 health survey questionnaire: new outcome
measure for primary care. Bmj, 305(6846), 160-164.
Campbell, B. H., Spinelli, K., Marbella, A. M., Myers, K. B., Kuhn, J. C., & Layde, P. M.
(2004). Aspiration, weight loss, and quality of life in head and neck cancer survivors.
Archives of Otolaryngology–Head & Neck Surgery,130(9), 1100-1103.
Hammerlid, E., & Taft, C. (2001). Health-related quality of life in long-term head and neck
cancer survivors: a comparison with general population norms. British journal of cancer,
List, M. A., D’Antonio, L. L., Cella, D. F., Siston, A., Mumby, P., Haraf, D., & Vokes, E. (1996).
The performance status scale for head and neck cancer patients and the functional
assessment of cancer therapy‐head and neck scale: A study of utility and validity.
Ringash, J., Bezjak, A., O’sullivan, B., & Redelmeier, D. A. (2004). Interpreting differences in
quality of life: the FACT-H&N in laryngeal cancer patients. Quality of Life Research,
Rogers, S. N., Lowe, D., Brown, J. S., & Vaughan, E. D. (1999). The University of Washington
head and neck cancer measure as a predictor of outcome following primary surgery for
oral cancer. Head & neck, 21(5), 394-401.
E-cigarettes Part II: Further Analysis of Pros and Cons and Contradictory Information
A recent study published in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine conducted research on children in grades 6 through 12 to determine young people’s opinions about e-cigarettes in comparison to their opinions about traditional cigarettes. As the figure below shows, the study found that of the 49.2 percent of students who knew about e-cigarettes, a whopping 30.6 percent felt that e-cigarettes were less harmful than traditional cigarettes (B. K. Ambrose et al., 2014). Furthermore, only 2.9 percent of these children believed that e-cigarettes were more harmful that traditional cigarettes. Therefore, many children who are aware of what e-cigarettes are disproportionately believe that e-cigarettes are safer than traditional cigarettes, which may increase the likelihood that they would try them.
Harm perceptions in children grades 6-12 overall and by cigarette smoking status (measured in percent of total children in the study)
On the other hand, a study published in the Tobacco Control journal states that “Older brands were significantly more likely to claim that their products were healthier than conventional cigarettes than were newer brands (80.1% vs 59.1%). The top-5 brands were most likely to make that claim (100%)” (S. Zhu et al., 2014). This shows that as time passes, brands of e-cigarette liquids are becoming less likely to make uncertain and potentially inaccurate claims about the benefits of using e-cigarettes.
Furthermore, a study conducted by E. Kralikova et al. shows that “Among regular users of ECs, 60% of those who provided the data…reported that ECs enabled them to reduce their consumption of conventional cigarettes” (E. Kralikova et al., 2013). This information can be taken one of two ways: on one hand it means that many people lean on e-cigarettes as a presumably safer or healthier alternative even though they can be equally harmful, but on the other, e-cigarettes are proving successful at helping people quit (or at least reduce) smoking traditional cigarettes.
While an article previously used in Writing Assignment #1 stated that e-cigarettes produce far fewer harmful emissions such as VOCs, carbonyls, and glycols than traditional cigarettes, an article published in the International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health counters this claim. The study found that “The concentration of putative carcinogenic PAH in indoor air increased by 20% to 147 ng/m3, and aluminum showed a 2.4-fold increase” (W. Schober et al., 2014). Moreover, “The nicotine content of the liquids varied and was 1.2-fold higher than claimed by the manufacturer” (W. Schober et al., 2014). This study shows that not only do e-cigarettes liquids contain a plentiful amount of harmful compounds, but their nicotine contents are also inaccurately labeled due to lack of governmental regulation and knowledge. This can lead to greater chances of people becoming addicted to e-liquids, even thought they choose low or zero nicotine options.
While many e-liquids may be labeled with inaccurate nicotine contents, a study published by the Society for the Study of Addiction potentially contradicts this evidence. The study “analyzed 20 models of 10 of the most popular brands of refill liquids, using gas and liquid chromatography” and found that “The nicotine content in the bottles corresponded closely to the labels on the bottles…neither ethylene glycol nor diethylene glycol were detected” (J. Etter et al., 2013). Therefore, although some brands have inaccurately labeled nicotine contents, it is likely that the better and more popular brands are more accurate and honest in their labeling and chemical make up.
Works Cited
Ambrose BK, Rostron BL, Johnson SE, et al. Perceptions of the Relative Harm of Cigarettes and E-cigarettes Among U.S. Youth. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. Vol 47, p S53-S60. 2014.
Etter J, Zäther E, Svensson S. Analysis of refill liquids for electronic cigarettes. Society for the Study of Addiction. Vol 108, p 1671-1679. 2013.
Kralikova E, Novak J, West O, et al. Do e-Cigarettes Have the Potential to Compete With Conventional Cigarettes?: A Survey of Conventional Cigarette Smokers’ Experiences With e-Cigarettes. Chest Journal. Vol 144, p 1609-1614. 2013.
Schober W, Szendrei K, Matzen W, et al. Use of electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) impairs indoor air quality and increases FeNO levels of e-cigarette consumers. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health. Vol 217, p 628-637. 2014.
Zhu SH, Sun JY, Bonnevie E, et al. Four hundred and sixty brands of e-cigarettes and counting: implications for product regulation. Tobacco Control. Vol 23, p iii3-iii9. 2014.
The Formation of Stars and Star Types From Explosions and Other Supernovae
The formation of stars is a complex matter, but this complexity mostly takes form in the essence of time. The complexity factor is the amount of time it takes for stars to start forming, and eventually forms into this massive cluster of gas, heat, energy, elements, gravity, etc., thus becoming a star. This process is not instant and can take up to millions of years. Just about every second an explosion from a star is occurring, setting the stage for the creation, or rather transfer of material, to other matter, such as planets and stars. Of course on the grander universal scale, this amount of time isn’t much, but in relation to the lives of us human beings, this is an enormous amount of time; a single human being will never be able to witness the complete life cycle of a star.
A star ends its life with an explosion known as a supernova, and from there with the leftovers, gas, and other ingredients, can form neutron stars or black holes, and some less massive stars can produce white dwarfs (Wheeler, 2013). An example can be taken with our primary star, the sun. The sun is just a little older than the Earth and is a massive star. Our sun “will one day become a red giant, then a planetary nebula, and finally a white dwarf,” eventually imploding on itself once it runs out of fuel, scattering its contents across the solar system, and essentially the galaxy (Leifert, 2016).
A lot of stars are seen and formed in clusters. These clusters get grouped and become part of bigger naming systems, representing a certain region of the universe, or at least of the current known visible universe. Though the stars forming in clusters are “high mass stars” in relation to other stars, and these high mass stars are identified as “hot cores” (Kawamura, 2008). Since these star clusters don’t hold the same exact type of stars in them, they become something to examine in terms of differing masses and mass functions at a variety of ages, along with “the time scales on which clusters are disrupted, and whether disruption occurs in a manner which is dependent or independent of mass” (Chandar, 2009).
Neutron stars in particular are interesting as they are some of the most massive stars known in the universe. They exist as both hot and cool stars, with the “best representation of nuclear matter” being found in the “cores of cold neutron stars” along with high “baryon number density and extremely high temperature” (Stone, 2015). As such, neutron stars, whether hot or cold, occupy a great mass and pose some incredibly extreme conditions.
Figure 1: Proposed Structure of a Cold Neutron Star (Stone, 2015)
Works Cited
Chandar, Rupali. “The Formation And Evolution Of Star Cluster Systems In Different Environments.” Astrophysics & Space Science 324.2-4 (2009): 315-319.
Leifert, Harvey. “Red Hot And Blue.” Natural History 124.2 (2016): 8.
Kawamura, Akiko. “Molecular Clouds And Star Formation In The Magellanic Clouds And The Milky Way.” Astrophysics & Space Science 313.1-3 (2008): 145-151.
Stone, J. R. “High-Density Matter: Current Status And Future Challenges.” EPJ Web Of Conferences 95.(2015): 1-23.
Wheeler, J. Craig. “How Do Stars Explode?.” Sky & Telescope (2013): 60-61.
Beyond Expectations: The Bullitt Foundation Creates the Greenest Office Building in the World
Ever since the introduction of green building rating systems, attaining the greenest structure has become a desired goal for many companies. One of the most successful green buildings created thus far is the Bullitt Center, located in Seattle, Washington. Designed by the Bullitt Foundation, the Bullitt Center earned the title of greenest office building in the world after achieving the Living Building Challenge certification, the highest green building standard currently available (Mirel 2014). As the greenest office building in the world, it has broken boundaries in sustainable building and has served as guidance for subsequent projects.
Denis Hayes, CEO of the Bullitt Foundation, stated that the Bullitt Center’s design team aimed to receive the Living Building Challenge certification since the very beginning of the design process (ASHRAE 2011). This certification is awarded to buildings that are fully self-reliant in terms of energy and water for more than a year. The Bullitt Center meets these requirements by harvesting all the water it needs on site, ensuring that the total amount of energy it uses is roughly equal to the amount of renewable energy it creates on site, refraining from using toxic chemicals, and preventing combustion within its systems (Fish 2012).
In order to obtain a self-reliant building, the Bullitt Foundation incorporated different green technologies and methods in the Bullitt Center’s design. Figure 1 illustrates the Bullitt Center’s various sustainable features. The Bullitt Center is able to achieve a net-zero energy system by using 575 rooftop solar panels. The panels are capable of producing 240,000 kilowatt hours per year. To achieve a net-zero water building, the Bullitt Center uses a network of filters and a cistern. It collects rainwater through its roof and stores it in a 56,000 galloon cistern located underground. As water becomes needed, the rainwater is filtered through ceramic filters, passed through UV light and charcoal, and added to a miniscule amount of chlorine. The now drinkable water is stored in a 500-gallon tank where it can be easily accessed. In addition, the Bullitt Center is able to reduce water pollution in the surrounding ecosystem through the use of native plant restoration, bio-swales, and pervious pavement. This system is able to delay rainwater runoff, therefore, reducing the amount of pollutants that enter nearby bodies of water. In terms of innovative design, the Bullitt Center contains the first composting toilet system in the world (Mirel 2014).
Figure 1: Sustainable Features of the Bullitt Center, Source: National Institute of Building Sciences. 2014. “The Bullitt Center.” WBDG. https://www.wbdg.org/references/cs_bullittcenter.php.
Although green building seems costly during the construction process, it can prove to be economically beneficial in the long run. Incorporating energy-saving technologies will significantly cut down energy costs. This is especially advantageous since the price of energy is continuously increasing (Eichholtz, Kok, and Quigley 2010). In addition, the usage of plant systems to process wastewater can cut energy and infrastructure expenses. Certain plants are capable of retaining and filtering water and are thus ideal for green building (Kibert and Grosskopf 2007).
As the greenest office building in the world, the Bullitt Center has contributed to green building by serving as an inspiration for future green construction projects. By taking note of its innovative ideas and methods, other companies can strive to achieve a fully self-reliant building. The creators of the Bullitt Center hope that their accomplishments motivate others to develop an even greener building in the near future (Mirel 2014).
References
“Bullitt Foundation plans ‘Greenest Building’ of all.” 2011. ASHRAE Journal, 53(10): 8. http://go.galegroup.com/.
Eichholtz, Piet, Nils Kok, and John M. Quigley. 2010. “Doing Well by Doing Good? Green Office Buildings.” The American Economic Review,100(5): 2492-2509. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41038771.
Fish, David R. 2012. “(by) Metrics (by) Design: Building for Endurance.” David Ronald Fish, 65. https://dlib.lib.washington.edu/researchworks/handle/1773/22681.
Kibert, Charles J., and Kevin Grosskopf. 2007. “ENVISIONING NEXT-GENERATION GREEN BUILDINGS.” Journal of Land Use & Environmental Law, 23(1): 145-160. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42842944.
Mirel, Diana. 2014. The greenest of the green: the bullitt center in seattle prides itself on being the world’s greenest office building. Journal of Property Management, 79(a), 30+. http://go.galegroup.com/.
National Institute of Building Sciences. 2014. “The Bullitt Center.” WBDG. https://www.wbdg.org/references/cs_bullittcenter.php.
When are the “Vision Zero” actions balanced? The causes and the price.
When introduced to the world in 1997, the “Vision Zero” project seemed to be the bright spot among the darkness created by numerous traffic fatalities. The laudable goal of achieving zero traffic deaths has been kept in the minds of lawmakers ever since. However, very often this desire to see zero in the statistics would blur the border between reasonable and excessive.
One group of people that happened to suffer from this border’s invisibility were the workers of TWU Local 100 transport union in New York City. What before seemed to be a quite common and “natural” occurrence became a punishable action. As claimed by the members of the union, the definition of required “due care while driving” was too vague, which caused misinterpretation and led to arrests of six bus drivers (Rivoli, 2015).
Even though the Right of Way Law is crucial in maintaining pedestrian safety, the union workers have achieved what they call “justice” – the newly established court settlement safeguards all bus drivers and other MTA drivers from arrest if involved in an accident lacking recklessness (Denney, 2016). Here, again, the question arises as to what actions are considered to be “reckless.” Furthermore, John Samuelsen, TWU Local 100 President, emphasizes the absence of distinction between acceptable and immoral in the eyes of law enforcement: “Under this well-intentioned but poorly crafted law, Bus Operators were arrested and handcuffed like common criminals (Rivoli, 2015).” Figure 1 below displays the message from TWU Local 100 workers to the public and law enforcement. As it appears to be, the government has to come up with a fair, acceptable price that members of the community have to pay to ensure safety and protection against excessive punishment at the same time.
Figure 1: Message from TWU Local 100 to the public
Source: Transport Workers Union Website – twulocal100.org
As it is widely known, commonly used passenger cars are operated by human drivers. The majority of the accidents and traffic fatalities are resulting directly from human error or carelessness. Figure 2 below shows that 91% of crashes are caused by human error. Reasons behind a traffic death could vary from speeding or failure to yield to impaired driving. In any case, the person behind the wheel is the contributor to the accident. That is exactly why David Ryu, Los Angeles City Councilman, envisions no human-operated vehicles within 20 years (Zhang, 2016). Ryu was inspired by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration’s policy addressing self-driving cars. The policy is aimed at providing manufacturers with guidelines on how to develop driverless technology, and David Ryu is motivating the developers by promising guaranteed use of the innovations: “we need these companies to focus on the largest market and the one that will benefit most: Los Angeles (Zhang, 2016).” Hopefully, autonomous cars will resolve the issue of traffic fatalities and turn their amount into zero.
In order to deal with traffic fatalities, we have to understand that one of the key reasons behind them is impaired driving. About 32% of fatal car crashes involve an intoxicated driver or even pedestrian (Thames, 2016). Over 1.2 million drivers were arrested in 2011 for driving under the influence of alcohol or narcotics (Thames, 2016). Alcohol impairs judgment, comprehension, coordination, concentration, visual acuity, and, most importantly, the reaction time, which is the crucial factor required for safe driving. Drugs can also impair perception, judgment, motor skills, and memory; furthermore, young adults aged between 18 and 25 are more likely to drive after taking drugs. This raises the need for harsh punishment and high insurance premiums for drivers aged 18 to 25.
Figure 2: Division of deadly crashes into human-caused and environment-caused — 2004 to 2013
Source: ODOT crash data
Another aspect about traffic deaths that must be taken into consideration is distracted driving. Figure 3 below displays the breakdown of fatal and non-fatal auto accidents by cause, emphasizing the contribution of drunk and distracted driving. Even though it doesn’t involve “impaired” judgment, the use of cell phone, texting, and eating can cause a major distraction. Texting while driving is the worst type of distraction, since it alienates the driver from the concentrated state in three different ways: visual – taking your eyes off the road, manual – taking hands off the wheel, and cognitive – taking your mind off driving (Thames, 2016). Interestingly enough, FOMO (fear of missing out) is a common phenomenon among young adults that drives them towards checking Snapchat, Facebook, Instagram, or any other social media sites while driving (Bowerman, 2016). This means that the road safety lawmakers have to come up with an alternative for in-car social media entertainment, since, as it appears to be, different punishments like adding points to one’s license do not seem to be working.
Figure 3: Breakdown of fatal and non-fatal auto accidents by cause (2014 Statistics)
Source: ODOT crash data
Works Cited (MLA Format)
Bowerman, Mary. “Fear of Missing Out (FOMO) Leads Motorists to Check Social Media While Driving.” Insurance Journal. 26 Aug. 2016.
Denney, Andrew. “Queens Judge Strikes Down Pedestrian Protection Law.” New York Law Journal. NYLJ, 28 June 2016.
Rivoli, Dan. “New York City, Union Settle Suit Over ‘Vision Zero’ Plan.” Claims Journal. Claims Journal Associated Press, 02 Sept. 2015.
Thames, Amanda. “Annual ‘Operation Firecracker’ Removes Drunk Drivers from N.C. Roadways.” Bladen Journal. Bladen Journal, 12 July 2016.
Zhang, Natalie. “Los Angeles Business Journal”. Councilman Calls for Autonomous Driving in Los Angeles by 2035. 23 Sept. 2016.
Schistosomiasis: What is it and What is The Current Status?
Schistosomiasis is an infectious disease caused by a parasite that is carried by freshwater snails. The disease is currently prevalent in over 78 countries. It is transmitted when skin comes in contact with freshwater that has contaminated snails. The larvae from these snails infect the person and get into the bloodstream, where they are able to reproduce. Some of the parasites are able to pass through the body in urine, but the rest of the parasites take over internal organs (Global Network, 2015). This life cycle can be seen in figure 1.
The symptoms of intestinal schistosomiasis are enlargement of the liver and spleen and fluid accumulation in the peritoneal cavity. This can make the abdomen very sore and bowel movements painful with frequent diarrhoea and blood in the stool. This swelling of the abdomen gives the characteristic look of an infected person (fig. 2). It is hard to calculate accurately, but there are roughly 20,000 to 200,000 deaths per year as a result of schistosomiasis (WHO, 2016). This number is hard to accurately confirm because many cases go untreated or unaccounted for. Additionally, many people with Schistosomiasis can also be infected by another parasite, making the cause of death more difficult to label.
There is a medication available to treat schistosomiasis, but there is no vaccine available. The best way to prevent the disease is to avoid wading or swimming in freshwater within a country that is known to have infected snails. Also, filtering of all water for drinking and bathing should be taken very seriously. Boiling water or filtering are both good options, but must be done (CDC, 2012). Currently, the disease has been contained to Africa, but controlling it further has been a real challenge. As the countries with infected snails try to develop their agricultural techniques and meet the demands of a growing population, staying on top of the infected water situation has been difficult. As a result, increased transmission of the disease has actually been occurring (Chitsulo et al., 2000). Studies are being done looking at new and more attainable treatment options. The standard method of treatment is effective, but difficult for many with the disease to obtain. More work needs to be done to effectively control this disease, both with transmission and with cures (Masaku et al., 2015).
Figure 1: Life Cycle of Schistosomiasis: CDC
Figure 2: Enlarged Abdomen
Works Cited:
“Schistosomiasis.” Global Network |. N.p., 2015. Web. 25 Sept. 2016. <http://www.globalnetwork.org/schistosomiasis>.
Chitsulo, L., and D. Engels. “The Global Status of Schistosomiasis and Its Control.” The Global Status of Schistosomiasis and Its Control. N.p., 23 Oct. 2000. Web. 25 Sept. 2016. <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001706X00001224>.
“Schistosomiasis.” World Health Organization. World Health Organization, n.d. Web. 25 Sept. 2016. <http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs115/en/>.
“Prevention & Control.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 07 Nov. 2012. Web. 25 Sept. 2016. <http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/schistosomiasis/prevent.html>.
Masaku, Janet, Nancy Madigu, and Collins Okoyo. “Current Status of Schistosoma Mansoni and the Factors Associated with Infection Two Years following Mass Drug Administration Programme among Primary School Children in Mwea Irrigation Scheme: A Cross-sectional Study.”BMC Public Health. N.p., 1 Aug. 2015. Web. 25 Sept. 2016. <http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-015-1991-z>.
Noninvasive Methods in Examining Valued Artwork and its Preservation
Noninvasive Methods in Art Conservation
The field of art conservation deals with expensive and irreplaceable artwork, and thus requires noninvasive methods of examination, or minimal sampling at most. Specifically, the preservation of paintings requires knowledge of paint layers and pigments in order to fully analyze the artwork and determine how it will age over time. In order to accomplish this, conservators utilize noninvasive methods such as Raman spectroscopy and reflectance spectroscopy.
Raman Spectroscopy
Raman spectroscopy was discovered by physicist C.V. Raman in the 1920s and has applications in a large range of science fields, from biomedicine and forensics to art conservation (L’Heureux). Raman spectroscopy (in addition to Raman microspectroscopy) analyzes inorganic pigments used in paintings, which is important because all colors age, decay, and react to chemicals in different ways. Raman spectroscopy also proves useful when determining what a painting looked like in its original state versus its present state, which can change the way people view the art. A downfall of Raman spectroscopy is that it does not work with fluorescent colors like yellow and red – upon encountering fluorescence, the Raman spectrum of these colors is obscured and cannot be analyzed.
In terms of detecting organic pigments and analyzing fluorescent colors, conservators can utilize surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, though this requires minimal sampling (Mukhopadhyay).
Reflectance Spectroscopy
Reflectance spectroscopy also identifies pigments in oil and watercolor, in addition to monitoring how these colors change over time. Specifically, fiber optics reflectance spectroscopy is helpful in identifying the normally hard-to-pinpoint organic dyes, most commonly found in East Asian art. These natural pigments are extremely difficult to identify because they absorb light strongly and thus appear very diluted in paintings. Reflectance spectroscopy works in spite of this, and can even identify pigments in thin washes or mixed with other colors. Downfalls of this technique include poor wavelength and “fingerprinting” ability (Leona and Winter).
Note: I am following the format of the L’Heureux article.
Small-scale fiber optic reflectance spectroscopy, for low budget art conservation. This is a chart for pigment identification and comparison. (Source: http://chsopensource.org/2014/11/10/fors-reflectance-spectroscopy-for-pigments-tested-bwtek-mini-spectrometer/)
References
Bacci, Mauro, Picollo Marcello, Trumpy Giorgio, Tsukada Masahiko, and Kunzelman Diane. “Non-Invasive Identification of White Pigments on 20th-Century Oil Paintings by Using Fiber Optic Reflectance Spectroscopy.” Journal of the American Institute for Conservation 46.1 (2007): 27-37. Web.
Leona, Marco, and Winter John. “Fiber Optics Reflectance Spectroscopy: A Unique Tool for the Investigation of Japanese Paintings.” Studies in Conservation 46.3 (2001): 153-62. Web.
L’Heureux, Megan. “Analysis of the state of the art: Raman Spectroscopy.” Spectroscopy June 2015: 44+. Academic OneFile. Web. 25 Sept. 2016.
Mukhopadhyay, Rajendrani. “Spectroscopy in Art.” Chemistry World Jan. 2010: 44-47. Print.
Pouyet, Emeline, et al. “Thin-sections of painting fragments: opportunities for combined synchrotron-based micro-spectroscopic techniques.” Heritage Science 3 (2015): 3. Academic OneFile. Web. 25 Sept. 2016.
Alternative Ways of Medical Waste Management
Municipal Solid Waste, more commonly known as trash or garbage, is generated by humans in enormous amount daily. However, in the early times, solid waste management did not cause a significant problem as today due to the lower population and larger amount of available space for disposal. In the recent decades, the growing human population, shorter product lifespan, usage of primary and secondary packaging, and mass production of materials have made solid waste into a less manageable problem. Approximately 3.53 million tons of municipal solid waste is generated each day globally. Researchers have been trying to develop methods such as Waste-to-Energy and modern landfilling to recycle and recover these waste materials in more efficient and proper ways (Nakamura, 2016).
One of the highly hazardous kinds of Municipal Solid Waste is medical waste, which is generated from hospitals and clinics. Medical waste is dangerous because it can lead to disease outbreak if treated improperly. It involves an even more difficult collection and disposal process, and the cost is much higher than that of other kinds of Municipal Solid Waste. There are unnecessary casualties and property loss during the collection process every year. More attention has been paid to the treatment of medical waste during recent years. In China, the amount of medical waste generated is growing by approximately 10 million tons per year from 2011 to 2014 (Table 1) (He and Fang, 2016). Stricter legislations were enacted in China to prevent the situation from deteriorating (Zhang et al., 2013). For instance, Chinese legislations demands that medical waste needs to be recovered within 48 hours. Researchers also found a more efficient way to transport medical waste from several hospitals and clinics to the disposal site. The optimization path decreases the total distance that the medical waste company has to travel, thus making the procedure more efficient and less dangerous (He and Fang, 2016).
Table 1. The amount of medical waste during 2006-2014 in China; Table taken from He and Fang, 2016.
Figure 1. Medical waste recycling and disposal process: collection, transportation, and disposal. Figure taken from He and Fang, 2016
Tissue engineering is another way of reducing medical waste. Organ transplantation is a highly complicated process and can generate a lot of medical wastes during the operation. Untreated medical wastes can create infections and contamination during the treatment process. Tissue Engineering such as scaffold can replace organ transplantation. A recent preliminary research at the New York City College of Technology focuses on tissue engineering for reducing medical waste. A group of researchers investigates the different scaffold fabrication techniques and their environmental impact. Scaffold fabrication aims to reduce the shortage of right donor organ and prevent transplant rejection and pathogen transference. Dr. Ozlem Yasar compared the four methods of scaffold fabrication (Heat, Adhesives, Light, and Molding- Based Fabrication) by looking at their toxicity, energy consumption, and material cost. It was found that Mold-Based Fabrication has the lowest energy consumption, toxicity, and material cost on average. This technique involves casting the polymer solution on a 3D-prototype and removing the mold to get the scaffold (Yasar et al., 2016).
Moreover, scaffolds can even allow wounds to repair. The new TiO2/COL-CS porous scaffold is a promising candidate that allows damaged tissues to grow back by providing a sterile environment. The addition of nano-TiO2 will form additional hydrogen bonds with collagen and chitosan, acting as a bridge between the molecular chains to increase the density of the mesh structure (Fan et al., 2016).
More and more people are emphasizing more on health sanitization and medical waste treatment during the past decades. Some of the medical wastes generated during operation process can now be replaced by tissue engineering, and thus reducing contamination and infections. Scaffold fabrication method and optimization path are found to improve medical waste management issues.
Literature Cited
He, Z., Li, Q., Fang., J. (2016). The solutions and recommendations for logistic problems in the collection of medical waste in China. School of Transportation and Logistics, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, China.
Nakamura, M. (2016). Municipal Solid Waste. Environmental Sci. & Eng. Vol 5. New York City College of Technology.
Fan, X., Chen, K., He, X., Li, N., Huang, J., Tang, K., Li, Y., Wang, F. (2016). Nano-TiO2/collagen-chitosan porous scaffold for wound repairing. College of Materials Science & Engineering-Zhengzhou University, and the Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University.
Zhang, H.J., Zhang, Y.H., Wang, Y., Yang, Y.H., Zhang, J., Wang, Y.L., Wang, J.L. (2013). Investigation of medical waste management in Gansu province, China. School of Public Health, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou.
Yasar, O., Nakamura, M., Tam, J. (2016). Investigation of Scaffold Fabrication Techniques: Tissue Engineering for Reducing Medical Waste and the Environmental Impacts. New York City College of Technology.
Technological Concepts and Solutions for Human Space Travel to Mars
One way both astronauts and mission control at NASA are preparing for a Mars mission is a fully functional simulation with an underwater space craft, affectionately called NEEMO, or NASA Extreme Environmental Mission Operations (Chappell et al., 2016). Using different buoyancy levels, NEEMO can simulate any range of gravity expected of a Mars mission, from zero gravity during the trip to the gravity on Mars. Six subjects carried out 4-hour tests in NEEMO under the closest conditions to the actual mission, including a 15-minute communication delay between the astronauts and mission control (Chappell et al., 2016).
The Evolvable Mars Campaign, or EMC, was a program created by NASA to focus research and technological advances towards the goal of sending humans to Mars by the mid-2030’s. EMC has designated the goals of constructing three conceptual structures supporting 4 crew for the Mars mission: a Mars moon habitat for 300-550 days available in 2028, a transit habitat for up to 1100 days in space available in 2032, and a Mars surface habitat for 300-550 days available in 2035 (Simon et al.,
2015). These structures will all be equipped with solar panels, an Electrical Power Control Unit, life support, thermal and radiation shields, and an array of items for the crew, including computers, food storage systems, vacuums, treadmills, utensils etc. (Simon et al., 2015). Two of the most important characteristics of these structures are that they are as light and small as possible, sacrificing mass and volume of any unnecessary item or material where possible, and that they are reusable for future Mars missions, meaning they’re durable and recyclable.
Figure 1: Global map of Mars with coordinates of all the proposed landing sites and exploration zones for NASA’s Mars mission, with topography indicated by color.
NASA has already begun selecting proposed landing sites and base locations based on regions or interest, or ROI, which are determined by certain preferred characteristics such as their elevation and proximity to geographically and chemically unique places for sample collection (Bussey and Hoffman, 2016). Figure 1 is a global map of Mars with all of the proposed landing sites based on ROI, with elevation indicated by color.
Figure 2 displays the interactions between solar radiation and Mars’ upper atmosphere by translating the energy of escaping charged ions to color (Fang et al., 2015). The interactions are also responsible for the auroras that can be seen both on Earth and Mars, though Mars’ lack of a global magnetic field means these solar winds are able to strip off the remnants of its atmosphere.
Figure 2: Computer simulation of solar winds interacting with ions in the upper atmosphere of Mars. The spectrum of colors is scaled in reference to the relative energy in electron-volts of the charged ions.
Studying the movements and energies of these escaping ions is one of the best ways to visualize solar winds during a long-term and immobile mission on Mars because they can serve as a forecast of radiation, almost like indirectly observing the humidity of air by looking at the condensation of water on a cold object. Satellites like the MAVEN, which recorded the data to construct Figure 2, would constantly monitor the solar winds to let astronauts determine whether it is safe to leave the protection of their shielded base and where to travel (Fang et al., 2015).
The only effective way to combat muscle atrophy aboard a long-term space mission is vigorous exercise, which is particularly important for potential Mars astronauts who will live in microgravity conditions for months before having to suddenly adapt to the gravity of Mars. In one study, nine astronauts aboard the International Space Station for six months were monitored for calf and skeletal muscle loss before and after their missions along with their total exercise methods and durations (Trappe et al., 2009). The three exercise methods were cycling on stationary bikes, running on a treadmill with a harness pulling down from the waist, and lifting using elastic bands. The study concluded that there remained a substantial decrease in calf and skeletal muscle loss even after the exercise routines, with an average muscle loss of about 13% (Trappe et al., 2009). The study shows the urgency for finding better exercise methods of combatting muscle atrophy for a Mars mission.
Works Cited
Fang, Xiaohua, University of Colorado, MAVEN Science Team. “Computer Simulation of Mars’ Polar Plume.” Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at The University of Colorado Boulder. (June, 2015) [Cited 23 September 2016].
Bussey, Ben, Stephen J. Hoffman. “Human Mars Landing Site and Impacts on Mars Surface Operations.” National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (March, 2016) [Cited 23 September 2016].
Simone, Matthew A., Larry Toups, Scott A. Howe, et al. “Evolvable Mars Campaign Long Duration Habitation Strategies: Architectural Approaches to Enable Human Exploration Missions.” National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (August, 2015) [Cited 23 September 2016].
Chappell, Stephen P., Kara H. Beaton, Trevor Graff, et al. “Analog Testing of Operations Concepts for Integration of an Earth-Based Science Team During Human Exploration of Mars.” National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (July, 2016) [Cited 23 September 2016].
Trappe, Scott, David Costill, Philip Gallagher, et al. “Exercise in space: human skeletal muscle after 6 months aboard the International Space Station.” Journal of Applied Physiology. 106, no. 4 (April, 2009) [Cited 23 September 2016].
