The Dangers of Cosmic Radiation and Possible Future Solutions

As space technology becomes more advanced and flights manned flights become longer, the perils of outer space will only become more dangerous for astronauts. As we have not yet started traveling far enough to require new fuel sources or relativistic speeds, the most prevalent health issue related to contemporary space travel is cosmic radiation.

Cosmic radiation in space is much different than on Earth. The Earth’s atmosphere deters the high energy particles that become so deadly in outer space (Durante 1247). On top of that, the wide array and randomness of particles in space makes the effects of radiation very hard to predict (Cucinotta 460). Prolonged exposure to this radiation can readily cause many varied health problems such as cancer or eye cataracts (Cucinotta 464).

The most obvious solution to the issue of radiation is to maintain a shield around the spaceship. The most likely metal candidates are lead (most likely too heavy to be used efficiently) and aluminum. The problem with these shields is that cosmic radiation causes with the nuclei in the shield to split and cause further radiation damage to the humans onboard. Figure 1 shows the probability of an aluminum shield withstanding the barrage of cosmic radiation particles over a certain period of time. Note that the mass of the shield does not seem to have much of an effect on the probability. Other nonmetal materials have yet to be extensively tested for their potential application aboard spaceships (Setlow 1014-1015).

Figure 1. Probability of complete radiation protection by an aluminum shield of variable mass over a variable length of time (from Setlow 1015)

If the structure of spacecraft cannot be properly made to stop cosmic radiation, then there may instead be hope for protecting the astronauts themselves. Research suggests that several different drugs, such as vitamin E and the steroid 5-androstenediol, may be administered to reduce tissue damage from radiation (Seed 240-243).

Before medicating astronauts becomes widely practiced, another method may be used to ensure they are safe: adapting them to the radiation. Humans living in more highly radioactive areas have consistently proven that they are less susceptible to the effects of radiation. Mortazavi and his team even assert that chronic exposure to radiation can make a potential astronaut build up an immunity or at least a resistance (Mortazavi 1544-1547). In the future, spaceships might not even defend against radiation as all astronauts (potentially a large percentage of the population) may become immune to the effects of cosmic radiation.

References

1. Durante, Marco, and Francis A. Cucinotta. “Physical basis of radiation protection in space travel.” Reviews of Modern Physics 83.4 (2011): 1245.
2. Mortazavi, SM Javad, J. R. Cameron, and A. Niroomand-Rad. “Adaptive response studies may help choose astronauts for long-term space travel.” Advances in Space Research 31.6 (2003): 1543-1551.
3. Setlow, Richard B. “The hazards of space travel.” EMBO reports 4.11 (2003): 1013-1016.
4. Seed, Thomas, et al. “New strategies for the prevention of radiation injury: possible implications for countering radiation hazards of long-term space travel.” Journal of radiation research 43.Suppl (2002): S239-S244.
5. Cucinotta, F. A., et al. “Space radiation and cataracts in astronauts.” Radiation research 156.5 (2001): 460-466.

Sustainable Building: A Step Towards a Greener Future

Ever since the beginning of the environmental movement, which commenced during the 1960s, the United States has been encouraging the use of green technology. In recent times, it has especially stressed the practice of sustainable building, also known as green building. Conventional buildings are responsible for 40% of global energy and material use. The practice of green building combats this issue by increasing the efficiency of energy, water, and raw materials during the construction process and throughout a structure’s lifetime. This can be achieved by reducing the use of rare resources and by including green technology in the designs of buildings (Tandon, 2016). In comparison to a standard building, a green building uses 42% less energy and 34% less water (Nalewaik & Venters, 2008). Through green building practice, environmentalists hope to develop and encourage environment-friendly living habits.

Green building is a broad idea that incorporates many features. Some of its aspects include energy efficiency, water efficiency, material efficiency, indoor quality, and waste and toxic reduction. Engineers keep these features in mind when deciding what materials and technologies to include in a building design. One strategy used by engineers to reduce energy consumption is replacing materials such as concrete, bricks, and steel with materials with lower embodied energy like asphalt, wood, and gravel. Furthermore, material efficiency is accomplished by using renewable resources such as bamboo, straw, and recycled metal (Tandon, 2016). Green building is also heavily reliant on green technology. A popular green technology used for buildings are green roofs. Green roofs, which are roofs that contain vegetation, can reduce a building’s energy consumption while providing environmental benefits to the local ecosystem. Figure 1 demonstrates the layers of a typical green roof. Vegetative roofs lower the amount of energy utilized during the summer by reducing the amount of heat transferred through the roof. In addition, green roofs are able to delay runoff, thereby preventing sewage overflow and water pollution (Oberndorfer et al., 2007).

Figure 1: Layers of a Green Roof,  Source: Miller, C. (2016, March 14). Extensive Vegetative Roofs. Retrieved from https://www.wbdg.org/resources/greenroofs.php

To encourage the practice of green building, highly industrialized governments around the world have developed grading systems that measure the greenness of buildings. As a result, competition has emerged between companies to see who can create the greenest building. The Bullitt Center in Seattle has earned the title of greenest office building in the world after achieving the Living Building Challenge certification, the highest green building certification (Mirel, 2014). Figure 2 illustrates some of the aspects of the interior of the building. The Bullitt Center is designed with environment-friendly materials and is capable of running on just sunlight and rainwater. The Bullitt Center primarily aims to achieve a zero net water system, harvesting the water it needs on site, and a zero net energy system, ensuring that the total amount of energy used is roughly equal to the amount of renewable energy created on site. It is estimated that ventilation and cooling in this building only accounts for 2 percent of the total amount of energy consumed per year. Furthermore, to reduce the amount of electricity used, workstations are purposely placed no further than 30 feet from a window (Azari-N. & Peña, 2011). In addition, the Bullitt Center is able to provide water for itself through the use of native plant restoration, bio-swales, and pervious pavement. In terms of innovative design, the Bullitt Center contains the first composting toilet system in the world. Buildings like the Bullitt Center serve as inspiration for future green projects (Mirel, 2014).

Figure 2: Green Technology in the Bullitt Center, Source: Newcomb, T. (2012, June 20). Seattle’s Silver Bullitt: A New Office Building Goes Ultra-Green | TIME.com. Retrieved from http://science.time.com/2012/06/20/silver-bullitt/

By increasing green building practice, the government hopes to reduce waste and pollution, limit the use of energy and water, and protect resident health. This can be accomplished by using resources more efficiently and incorporating green technologies in designs. Although the concept is fairly new, the government hopes to encourage engineering and architecture companies to practice it and create environment-friendly habits.

References

Azari-N, R., & Peña, R. (2011). Integrated design to achieve zero net energy in an urban office building. Solar.

Miller, C. (2016, March 14). Extensive Vegetative Roofs. Retrieved from https://www.wbdg.org/ resources/greenroofs.php

Mirel, D. (2014, January-February). The greenest of the green: the bullitt center in seattle prides itself on being the world’s greenest office building. Journal of Property Management, 79(a), 30+. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/

Nalewaik, A., & Venters, V. (2008). Costs and Benefits of Building Green’. AACE International Transactions, 1-9.

Newcomb, T. (2012, June 20). Seattle’s Silver Bullitt: A New Office Building Goes Ultra-Green | TIME.com. Retrieved from http://science.time.com/2012/06/20/silver-bullitt/

Oberndorfer, E., Lundholm, J., Bass, B., Coffman, R. R., Doshi, H., Dunnett, N., … & Rowe, B. (2007). Green roofs as urban ecosystems: ecological structures, functions, and services. BioScience, 57(10), 823-833.

Tandon, S. (2016). Green Buildings: A Step towards Sustainable Development. International Journal Of Multidisciplinary Approach & Studies, 3(1), 205-209.

Cell Communication: The Different Players and Methods

Even when we are doing something as simple as sitting, our body is not quite. It is still carrying multiple processes simultaneously. Our body never simply does one thing. There are so many interactions within a cellular level that constitutes our body as we live and breathe. Cellular communication is one of the most complex and intricate systems within our bodies. There are multiple levels of cellular communication, as well as different “messengers” between the cells.

A great example of long distance communication within our cells is how our hormones our distributed. Hormones originate from our pituitary gland within our brain. When it secretes hormones, they are then distributed to usually the blood stream, so that it has the potential to reach every cell in the body. Although there are many ways signaling can occur in these cells, it is interesting how electrical charge can play a role. In a study they modified the calcium ion levels in the anterior pituitary and even used electrical field stimulation to measure the effects on cell to cell communication (Teddy Fauquier 2001). This furthers the notion of how calcium ions and electrical charge play a pivotal role in communication. Especially in heart cells, which were found to be connected through low resistance pathways (Walmor Mello 1975). An over injection of calcium ions led to a temporary cell communication failure, as the charge became to strong, but over time communication became reestablished. So even when the heart cells became overwhelmed with the charge, their cytoplasm was able to reestablish a stable gradient for cell communication.

Besides ions and electrical charge, small molecules can be the messenger between cells. In the tongue, ATP is secreted from the taste buds and stimulate the release of the transmitter, serotonin (Yi-Jen Huang 2007). In cell communication the exact shape of the message plays a huge role. When messages are sent, they can only bond to cells that have the corresponding protein receptors. When hormones are sent throughout the body, only specific cells respond to them and follow the message to grow, or whatever else.

A representation of the Notch pathway; a more direct method of cell communication. The shape of the proteins are differentiated by the number of rectangles

Even in direct cell to cell communication the shape of receptors and proteins are important, such as in Notch signaling. It is a transmembrane receptor leads a signaling system called the Notch pathway, seen in the figure (Eric Lai 2004). The proteins in notch signaling have a specific shape that the receptor corresponds with. A similar cell to cell communication even occurs in bacteria. Quorum sensing is a way of responding to critical density in the bacteria’s environment (Everett Pesci 1999). It is a defense mechanism, that once it detects critical density, it sends an activator protein so that it can induce specific genes of a bacteria.

In cell communication there are many different players that help with this constant and complex process. From electric charge and ions, to specifically shaped proteins that can start the production of ore complex signals or even inhibit the production of a cell product. It is interesting to note how the messages can be as simple as an ion to the complexity and specificity of a protein molecule.

Sources:

1. Fauquier, T., N. Guerineau C., R. Mckinney A., K. Bauer, and P. Mollard. “Folliculostellate Cell Network: A Route for Long-distance Communication in the Anterior Pituitary.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences15 (2001): 8891-896.
2. Mello, W. C De. “Effect of Intracellular Injection of Calcium and Strontium on Cell Communication in Heart.” The Journal of Physiology2 (1975): 231-45.
3. Huang, Y.-J., Y. Maruyama, G. Dvoryanchikov, E. Pereira, N. Chaudhari, and S. Roper D. “The Role of Pannexin 1 Hemichannels in ATP Release and Cell-cell Communication in Mouse Taste Buds.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences15 (2007): 6436-441.
4. Lai, E. C. “Notch Signaling: Control of Cell Communication and Cell Fate.”Development5 (2004): 965-73. Web.
5. Pesci, E. C., J. Milbank B. J., J. Pearson P., S. Mcknight, A. Kende S., E. Greenberg P., and B. Iglewski H. “Quinolone Signaling in the Cell-to-cell Communication System of Pseudomonas Aeruginosa.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences20 (1999): 11229-1234.

Lina Mohamed Blog Post 1

Lina Mohamed                                                                                    September 12, 2016

MHC 20301

Professor Glen Kowach

-Politicization of Health Care and Dangers of Painkillers- Possible Future Alternatives

Pharmaceuticals, drugs, health care, it is all just a business. Prices for drugs are constantly on the rise and people will not always be able to afford the care they need. Providers of healthcare are just looking for their own interests and ways to maximize benefits even if it means harming the consumers.

Painkillers are an important part of may people’s lives. Whether consumers are taking it for a cold, headaches, body pain, painkillers are often taken without enough caution. This is not always the consumer’s fault because labels can often leave out information about mixing painkillers with other painkillers or alcohol, for example. This leads to people overdosing because they do not know the correct amount when taking painkillers and  then high doses of acetaminophen, for example, can lead to serious liver damage. This problem especially affects older people because as they get older they get addicted to painkillers such as sleep aids and opiate drugs and this was found to be linked to some deaths. Older people also tend to consume alcohol in excess amounts than that of which is safe to drink with these painkillers. Some corporations do change their labels to add information after being sued or other serious situations. However, providers just believe that the benefits of these painkillers/drugs outweigh the risks.

Over the counter drugs just mask symptoms without getting deep down to fix the problem or cure the disease/virus/infection. Will this stop companies from selling painkillers and advertising them as the solution? No. Healthcare providers and pharmaceutical corporations just want to sell products without thinking of the harm they are causing. In the future, I believe that natural alternatives should replace all types of drugs/pills that cause harm to the human bodies. Why would people continue to take pills that tire their livers and cause harm to themselves when most symptoms have natural remedies? Natural remedies can be easily found in nature to cure some of these illnesses. Of course not all illnesses and diseases have natural remedies but for most there are natural remedies that will actually benefit humans more than pills while costing much less. Some examples of natural remedies: for pain; get professional hands-on help that will fix the problem and not just mask the symptoms, for cholesterol; change your diet instead of just taking pills; for high blood pressure; start off with pills if needed then switch to natural therapies to help you quit the medication, for acid-reflux; try slippery-elm lozenges that will coat your throat and stomach instead of Prilosec or other things, for sinus infections; use saline nasal washes instead of turning to meds, etc..

The truth is, the United States is an over-medicated nation that spends more than 300 billion dollars on prescription drugs every year. This is a huge income for many companies and our nation as a whole. This means that converting to natural remedies most likely will not happen anytime soon because people do not know what to turn to. This is because natural remedies aren’t advertised because then pharmaceuticals would lose a great amount of money. However, if people look into these natural remedies and it starts to become more advertised, people will catch on and learn to be more aware of what the are putting into their bodies while saving money at the same time.

Resources:

– Chorniy, Anna. (2015, n. pg.) Essays on the Health Economics of Pharmaceuticals. Clemson University, Tiger Prints. Retrieved from Google Scholar:

http://tigerprints.clemson.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2474&context=all_dissertations

-Corbett, Holly. (2012, n. pg.) Natural Alternatives To The Top Most Prescribed Drugs. Prevention. Retrieved from:

http://www.prevention.com/health/top-10-prescription-drugs-and-natural-remedies

-Friedman, Michael. (2015, n. pg.) Substance Abuse and Misuse in Older Adults. Behavioral Health News. Retrieved from Google Scholar:

http://www.mhaofnyc.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Substance-Abuse-BHN-Winter15.pdf

-Desmon, Stephanie. (2013, n. pg.) Politicization of Health Care Preventing Real Changes to Out-Of-Control System, Researchers Suggest. John Hopkins Medicine. Retrieved from Google Scholar:

http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/news/media/releases/politicization_of_health_care_preventing_real_changes_to_out_of_control_system_researchers_suggest

Guinea Worm: What is it and what is being done to eradicate it?

Guinea Worm disease is caused by Dracunculus medinensis, one of the largest parasitic worms to infect humans. A female Guinea Worm can carry 3 million embryos and can be as long as 80 cm and as wide as 20 mm. The parasite is contracted through contaminated water. The parasite is contracted when someone consumes contaminated water that has Guinea Worm larvae. Then the larvae travel through the subcutaneous tissues of the person. Usually the worm will present itself as a blister or sore on the victim’s leg or foot, and the feeling is an intense burning sensation, leading the victim to dunk their extremity in a water source (Muller, 1979). This continues the worm’s life cycle because when the blister is submerged, the worm releases larvae, further contaminating the water and spreading the disease (Fig. 1).

The pain caused from a Guinea Worm infection is excruciating and debilitating. To get rid of the worm, a stick must be used to slowly pull out the large worm from the body. This process could take weeks to months because it is important not to break the body of the worm in the process, and most times the pain is too intense to bear for many hours. The disease itself is not necessarily fatal, but infection around the blister caused by the worm can be (WHO, 2016). Since the cause of this disease is unclean water, it is common that  

There is no vaccine or medication for Guinea Worm, the only way to eradicate it is by behavior modification. This disease is found in the poorest countries in the world, where clean water is hard to come by, and knowledge behind how the disease is spread could be a mystery. Teaching communities to filter water thoroughly before drinking can help put an end to the disease.  Additionally, by explaining the life cycle of the Guinea Worm to those in countries affected by the parasite, the risk of contaminating water sources will dwindle. The Carter Center,  WHO and UNICEF have all  been vital parts in helping with this eradication process. In the mid 1980s, the disease was spread over 20 countries, covering Africa, the Middle East, and Asia, with over 3.5 million people infected. Now, in 2016, the disease is confined to the countries of Chad, Mali, South Sudan, and Ethiopia. If the eradication process stays on track, this will be the second disease, after smallpox, to be eradicated. The eradication granting process can begin after 12 consecutive months with no cases of the disease. Then the country will be on surveillance for 3 years, and if no cases are detected, then the country can be granted a certificate of eradication  (Ruiz-Tibin et al., 2006).

Unfortunately, humans are not the only host for Guinea Worm, dogs are also a prime host for the nasty parasite. The canines responsible for the continuation of the disease are primarily in Chad, and it is astonishing the dramatic increase of cases of Guinea Worm in dogs (Fig. 2). This issue could seriously thwart the eradication process of the disease (Galan-Puchades, 2016).

Figure 1: The Carter Center

Figure 2: Guinea Worm in Canines, Carter Center and CDC

Works Cited:

Muller, R. “Guinea Worm Disease: Epidemiology, Control, and Treatment.”Bulletin of the World Health Organization. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 1979. Web. 10 Sept. 2016.

“About Guinea-worm Disease.” World Health Organization. World Health Organization, n.d. Web. 10 Sept. 2016.

Ruiz-Tibin, Ernesto, and Donald Hopkins R. “Dracunculiasis (Guinea Worm Disease) Eradication.” Dracunculiasis (Guinea Worm Disease) Eradication. N.p., 2006. Web. 10 Sept. 2016.

“Eradication Program.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 29 June 2015. Web. 10 Sept. 2016.

Galan-Puchades, Teresa. “Dogs and Guinea Worm Eradication.” The Lancet. N.p., July 2016. Web. 10 Sept. 2016.

Understanding Genetic Disorders and Finding Better Treatment Through Research

Human genetic disorders arise from mutations in DNA sequences. Due to their origin in DNA, which is found in all body cells, it is not plausible to cure most of the disorders completely, but there are treatments to manage them and live a more normal life. However, genetic disorders continue to affect millions of people worldwide and even cause death. The most common disorders include Fragile X Syndrome (FXS) and breast cancer. Learning about these two disorders can give people a better understanding of how genetic disorders work and how they are treated.

Figure 1- Comparison of normal FMR1 gene sequence to a fully mutated FMR1 gene Source: Garber, Kathryn B., Jeannie Visootsak, and Stephen Warren T. “Fragile X Syndrome.” Nature.com. Nature Publishing Group, 9 Apr. 2008. Web. 09 Sept. 2016.

FXS is an inherited X-linked disorder that is most known for causing mental retardation. It is a result of a mutation in a specific gene called FMR1 that codes for a protein that regulates dendrites (Garber 2008).  As shown in Figure 1, mutations occur when there are too many repeats of CGG. The mutated gene causes over-synthesis of these proteins and reduces the strengths of synapses. There are many symptoms of FXS including learning disabilities, mental retardation, and attributes of autism. Males with FXS have more cognitive problems and females with FXS have more emotional problems (Garber 2008). Emotional problems range from mood disorders and social anxiety to impulsiveness and hyperactivity (Garber 2008). Current treatments mostly deal with managing symptoms of FXS through therapy and medication, but research is underway to treat FXS at the molecular level. Since the gene that causes FXS was identified, it is possible to learn more about the gene and its role in the body to find a treatment that targets FXS directly. The protein FMRP that is coded by FMR1 has other roles, including one in the development of synapses, that need to be studied more to understand the gene better (Bassell 2008). Knowing the mechanisms behind the processes the protein is involved in can lead to treatment not only for FXS, but for similar disorders.

FXS is an inherited X-linked disorder that is most known for causing mental retardation. It is a result of a mutation in a specific gene called FMR1 that codes for a protein that regulates dendrites (Garber 2008).  As shown in Figure 1, mutations occur when there are too many repeats of CGG. The mutated gene causes over-synthesis of these proteins and reduces the strengths of synapses. There are many symptoms of FXS including learning disabilities, mental retardation, and attributes of autism. Males with FXS have more cognitive problems and females with FXS have more emotional problems (Garber 2008). Emotional problems range from mood disorders and social anxiety to impulsiveness and hyperactivity (Garber 2008). Current treatments mostly deal with managing symptoms of FXS through therapy and medication, but research is underway to treat FXS at the molecular level. Since the gene that causes FXS was identified, it is possible to learn more about the gene and its role in the body to find a treatment that targets FXS directly. The protein FMRP that is coded by FMR1 has other roles, including one in the development of synapses, that need to be studied more to understand the gene better (Bassell 2008). Knowing the mechanisms behind the processes the protein is involved in can lead to treatment not only for FXS, but for similar disorders.

Breast cancer is one of the most common cancers in the United States. It is the second leading cause of death by cancer. As of 2013, there was a 12.3% chance that a woman in the United States would be diagnosed with breast cancer (DeSantis 2013). It is cancer caused by a mutation in breast cells that makes breast cells grow out of control. Fortunately, between 1990 and 2010, there was a 34% decrease in the breast cancer death rate (DeSantis 2013). Advancements in treatment and early detection of breast cancer due to increased screening and awareness have helped immensely. Chemotherapy is one popular treatment, but at the cost of great emotional and physical distress (Pandey 2006). Patients have reported greater anxiety, depression, and nausea, and lower self-esteem after beginning chemotherapy (Pandey 2006). Some researchers are researching whether chemotherapy is necessary for breast cancer treatment to help alleviate the pain that patients go through. Surgery to remove breast cancer tumors is another option that patients have. There are patients who undergo surgery who have to live with chronic pain (Poleshuck 2006). Breast cancer treatments are getting better, but patients continue to endure psychological trauma and physical pain. More research is needed to improve treatments for breast cancer patients.

Advancements in science have helped scientists and medical professionals understand genetic disorders and find treatment options for them. Fragile X Syndrome and breast cancer two common disorders that can be managed due to these advancements. However, more research can help people understand these disorders better and lead to better treatments. In the future, perhaps people with genetic disorders can lead normal and healthy lives.

References

Bassell GJ, Stephen WT: Fragile X Syndrome: Loss of Local MRNA Regulation Alters Synaptic Development and Function. Neuron 2008; 60: 201-214.

DeSantis C, Ma J, Bryan L: Breast Cancer Statistics, 2013. CA: A Cancer Journal for Statistics 2014; 64: 52-62.

Garber KB, Visootsak J, Stephen WT: Fragile X Syndrome. European Journal of Human Genetics; 16: 666-672.

Pandey M, Gangadharan SP, Nandkumar D, Bejoy TC, Badridien HM, and Rita K: Distress, Anxiety, and Depression in Cancer Patients Undergoing Chemotherapy. World Journal of Surgical Oncology 2006; 4.

Poleshuck EL, Kratz J, Andrus CH, Hogan LA, Jung BF, Kulick DI, Dworkin RH: Risk Factors for Chronic Pain Following Breast Cancer Surgery: A Prospective Study. The Journal of Pain 2006; 7: 626-34.

Argument for the Practical Applications of the Study of Language

Roughly 7,102 languages are spoken worldwide. As such, an investigation into the nature of language lends itself to a virtually unlimited store of methods and conclusions. The scientific study of language is not as straightforward as one might assume. There are social, philosophical, scientific, and grammatical factors to take in to account.

Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society makes quite the claim in reference to the spread of language and its bearing on the world moving forward. It is asserted that certain, more prolific, languages can be seen, not only as methods of communication, but as “language empires”. Specifically, viewing English as one of these language empires gives its spread an imperial tone. Sociolinguistics claims that English can be seen as “the killer language”. This bears serious consequences for the rest of the world and the preservation of cultures. To quantify this claim, in just under about 400 years (1588-1952) the worldwide number of English speakers rose from about 5 to 7 million speakers (mainly living within the actual British Isles) to about 250 million English speakers worldwide (with the overwhelming majority outside of the actual boundaries of the British Isles). In other words, this is an approximately 4000 percent increase in English speakers in about 400 years or an average 10 percent increase every year since 1588. This type of anthropological and sociolinguistic research into English as a language lends itself to many questions about the future and what kind of policies should be taken in reference to language and it’s natural (or forced) spread.

The diagram below, produced by UNESCO, displays these sorts of language empires visually. Pictured are the 23 most spoken languages in the world with each bubble identifying the countries that the language is spoken in. For example, the largest bubble is Chinese (in this case Chinese is counted as a ‘macrolanguage’ including it’s many dialects) and the largest section of the bubble is China with 1,152 million speakers out of a total 1,192. The smaller bubbles that are still a part of the larger Chinese section represent the other nations with Chinese speakers, such as Taiwan with 21.8 million speakers. However, to clarify, Chinese is not a ‘killer language’ in the same way English is because the vast majority of its speakers still reside within the actual nation of China.

Figure 1. The 23 Most Spoken Languages. This figure visually illustrates the worldwide use of the 23 most spoken languages by first dividing the circle by language and then each language by nation.

In another vein, language need not only be seen on a surface level as the sort of builder of empires. Instead, language can be seen as the very basis upon which we build our own views of ourselves. Harpham in “Do We Know What We Are? The Science of Language and Human Self-Understanding” argues that the very grammatical basis of words and language shapes our very philosophical viewpoints on what humanity is and by extension what exactly constitutes the oft spoken about concepts of “natural human rights”, “crimes against humanity”, and “the sanctity of human life”.

If taken further, the study of language can help us solve the very current and concrete problems that arise in situations like ‘the refugee crisis’ and increased immigration. We can use the study of language to reveal how children’s views about other’s ethnicities, religions, nationalities, etc. are shaped. Instead of using language to look inward as Harpham does, The Development of Language, seeks to study how language affects our outward perceptions of others and why our attitudes towards peoples are the way they are. To revisit Britain as a sort of numerical example, 32 percent of all Londoners are born outside of the U.K. with over 300 languages being spoken as a first language in London schools. These numbers represent the very real need for the creation of a sort of language based program that teaches children about their peers who are increasingly diverse.

We can furthermore conceivably study languages to look back at the past instead of towards the future, which can be just as eye-opening. Tamil is one of the world’s oldest languages and has been classified as one of the only surviving classical languages. Here a classical language means that the language as it is today can be directly traced back to what it was in ancient times. For example, Latin is a classical language. However Latin, like almost every other classical language has died out. So, as a classical language still in wide use, a systematic and scientific analysis such as that conducted by Prakasar in “Place of Tamil in the Science of Language” has the potential to unlock the very origins of language and thought. Looking back at Figure 1, one can see that Tamil has 68.8 million speakers, with 60.7 million in India and the remaining 8.1 million in Sri Lanka and Malaysia.

Almost all research into language can be traced back to the work of Max Müller as seen in The Anthropological Review. It can be said that Müller did for language what Freud did for psychology. So while all of his conclusions may not be correct, they can effectively be used as the very building blocks of current and future sociolinguistic study. As such, a reading of his work serves any work in the realm of language well.

As a whole, all of these conclusions made on the very broad topic of language have the ability, in one way or another, to bring us toward a brighter future. With language we can fight neocolonialism and more readily accept refugees. Conversely, we can learn more about the origin of human thought and human self-conception. All of this building upon the work of linguists of old. No matter it’s end goal, it is clear that the study of language provides us with much more than simple explanations of grammar or syntax. This practical application  has the very real ability to change human thought and knowledge moving forward.

References

Barrett, M.D. (Ed.). (1999). Introduction. The Development of Language (pp. 10-14). Hove, United Kingdom: Psychology Press.

Charnock, R.S. (1863). On the Science of Language. The Anthropological Review, 1(2), pp. 193-215.

Harpham, G.G. (2009). How Do We Know What We Are? The Science of Language & Human Self-Understanding. Daedalus, 138(3), pp. 79-91.

Hamel, R.E. (2006). The Development of Language Empires. In A. Ulrich, N. Dittmar, K. J. Mattheier & P. Trudgill (Eds.), Sociolinguistics/Soziolinguistik: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society (pp. 2240-2258). Berlin, New York: Walther de Gruyter.

Prakarsar, S.G. (1927). Place of Tamil in the Science of Language. The Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, 30(80), pp. 410-435.

The Medical Consequences of Human Space Travel to Mars

For the video project, I have decided to investigate the dangers and complications to an astronaut’s health aboard a proposed mission to Mars. This includes the psychological consequences of being on a space ship for months, the risks of cancer and cell damage from being exposed to solar and cosmic radiation, and bone and muscle loss as a result of living in zero gravity. Past and current research about humans in space can aid in my understanding.

One of the most overlooked dangers when it comes to an astronaut’s health is the psychological consequence of a long-term space mission spent in a crammed vessel. Though an astronaut’s day would be very occupied with research, records, and transmission, feelings of loneliness and anxiety are always going to be an underlying response. A study conducted a psychological analysis of 6 males confined in a 520-day Mars mission simulation in a 550 m³ chamber (Basner et al., 2014). Mood states and a series of categorical psychological evaluations in the form of questionnaires were given to the participants weekly. The study found that crew members exhibited depression, insomnia, and stress, among other mental states, leading to an increase in miscommunication and conflicts with mission control. This is why astronauts on the International Space Station are allowed to bring certain forms of entertainment aboard, e.g. Chris Hadfield’s famous cover of ‘Space Oddity’ from the ISS was made with a custom built and approved guitar.

Figure 1: Graph comparing the effectiveness of different shielding materials against Galactic Cosmic Rays and Solar Particle Events. Upper panel shows point dose equivalent per year while the bottom panel shows effective dose equivalent per year, on the y-axes, with aerial-density of the shield on the x-axis.

Probably the most dangerous and preventive aspect of a long-term space mission is the exposure to solar and cosmic radiation. One data value used to measure the affects of radiation is Risk of Exposure-Induced Death (REID), which is a statistical percentage for the risk of fatality from radiation-induced cancer based on an average population. NASA’s precautionary standard for astronauts aboard the ISS is no more than 3% REID, which translates to the risks of 23 out 100 people of an average population (Escobedo and Costello, 2016). Figure 1 compares the effectiveness of various radiation shielding materials, with shield areal-density on the x-axis in g/cm² and the dose equivalent of Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCR) and Solar Particle Events (SPE) per year on the y-axis (Cucinotta et al., 2005). The graph on the top shows the actual dose equivalent of radiation, called point dose equivalent, on the y axis while the bottom graph shows effective dose, the actual radiation absorbed by tissue and organs. Aluminum, among several materials, is quite successful in blocking SPE, which is why it is the prime shielding material for the ISS and other space vessels. However, all of the materials are relatively insufficient in blocking GCR, which is a major problem.

Lastly, bone loss and muscle atrophy as a result of humans being in a zero gravity environment in space can be detrimental to an astronaut’s health and condition upon reaching Mars and/or returning to Earth. A study measured the effects of bone and skeletal mineral loss in the spine and hip bone of 14 crew members aboard the International Space Station for 4-6 months, comparing the measurements of bone density and volume before and after their missions (Thomas et al., 2004). The crewmembers’ ranges of bone loss were 0.8-0.9% per month in the lumbar spine and 1.2-1.5% in the hip bone. These results are despite exercising routines on the ISS designed to combat, in part, bone and muscle loss, making them alarming figures for a potential mission to Mars which would last multiple months. Muscle atrophy, a common condition for patients confined to one position for extended periods, is quite damaging for astronauts in zero-gravity space, resulting in the loss of muscle mass and strength. A study used Bioartifical Muscle tissue (BAM) tested in both ground (Earth) and flight (microgravity) conditions to determine the in vitro effects of muscle atrophy (Vandenburgh et al., 1999). The study found that in flight conditions for 9-10 days, there was a 10-12% decrease in myofiber (muscle fiber) size as compared to the myofibers grown in normal conditions. These two studies, one conducted on astronauts and the other in vitro, demonstrate the significant physiological effects of bone and muscle loss expected for astronauts in a Mars mission.

Human space travel to Mars is a topic I have always been enthusiastic about, especially since recent insight into Mars’ past and after a serious proposal for a manned mission. Though many people share the dream of being a Mars astronaut for the pioneering value, they may not realize and appreciate the enormous risks an astronaut faces during such a mission and what the chosen class will be signing up for. This is why I believe a video on these risks, including radiation, mental illness, and bone and muscle loss, is so important and informative.

Works Cited

Basner, Mathias, David F. Dinges, Daniel J. Mollicone, et al. “Psychological and Behavioral Changes during Confinement in a 520-Day Simulated Interplanetary Mission to Mars.” PLOS ONE. 9, no. 3 (March, 2014) [Cited 10 September 2016].

Cucinotta, Francis A., Kim, Myung-Hee Y. Kim, Lei Ren. Managing Lunar and Mars Mission Radiation Risks Part I: Cancer Risks, Uncertainties, and Shielding Effectiveness. NASA/TP-2005-213164/PT1. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Jul 1, 2005. (20050196720: NTRS)

Escobedo, Victor M. Jr, Kirt Costello. “International Space Station Internal Radiation Monitoring (ISS Internal Radiation Monitoring) – 07.14.16.” National Aeronautics Space Administration. (July 2016) [Cited 10 September 2016].

Lang, Thomas, Adrian LeBlanc, Harlan Evans, et al. “Cortical and Trabecular Bone Mineral Loss From the Spine and Hip in Long-Duration Spaceflight.” Journal of Bone and Mineral Research. 19, In Wiley Online Library. (March, 2004) [Cited 10 September 2016].

Vandenburgh, Herman, Joseph Chromiak, Janet Shansky, et al. “Space travel directly induces skeletal muscle atrophy.” The FASEB Journal. 13, no. 9 (June, 1999) [Cited 10 September 2016].

The Transiency in Art Conservation and Our Approaches for Restoration

Art conservation is the care and preservation of artwork with historical relevancy. It represents the unique merging of art, art history and science, where the methods and knowledge of these disciplines are vital in its application. Art conservators must determine the best way to preserve artwork, keeping scientific limitations and artists’ intentions in mind. Though the practice of art conservation is straightforward, there is much debate about the intentions of the art conservator versus the artist, especially since most artists in question are deceased. It is also not possible to restore paintings and sculptures to their exact original state, thus slightly changing the work in attempts to preserve it, an irony that leaves room for controversy. Conservators must answer the question of whether or not a particular artist would have wanted their work to be preserved, and the subjectivity of art as a whole further complicates this. However, modern artists like Robert Rauschenberg have acknowledged this debate, and are fully aware that though their work is not permanent, it does not affect the materials they choose to create art with (Dykstra).

The biggest challenge of art conservation is that no method of art or preservation is permanent: everything is subject to chemical decomposition and deterioration, and thus the art conservation process is always a cycle (Dykstra). Because of the fragile and irreplaceable nature of artwork, it must be examined in a noninvasive way, or minimal sampling at most. One method with minimal sampling is optical microscopy and infrared microspectroscopy which allows conservators to determine the sequence of paint layers, vital information in understanding how this artwork will decay and knowing how to treat it (Fig 1). Noninvasive methods include raman microspectroscopy, shown in Fig. 2, which identifies pigments used in paintings, and reflectance spectroscopy, shown in Fig. 3, which also identifies pigments in addition to monitoring how colors fade. For my final video project, I would like to focus on at least one of these methods regarding a specific painting, should I be able to find appropriate articles and sources.

Fig. 1

Optical microscopy and infrared microspectroscopy, which determines the sequence of paint layers.

Fig. 2

Raman microspectroscopy, a non-invasive method that identifies pigments.

Fig. 3

Reflective spectroscopy, a non-invasive art conservation method that identifies pigments and how colors fade.

References

Berger, Gustav A. “A Structural Solution for the Preservation of Canvas Paintings.“Studies in Conservation 29.3 (1984): 139-42. Web.

Carrier, David. “Art and Its Preservation.” The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 43.3 (1985): 291-300. Web.

Dykstra, Steven W. “The Artist’s Intentions and the Intentional Fallacy in Fine Arts Conservation.” Journal of the American Institute for Conservation 35.3 (1996): 197-218. Web.

Karlen, Peter H. “Aesthetic Quality and Art Preservation.” The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 41.3 (1983): 309-22. Web.

Leona, Marco. “The Materiality of Art: Scientific Research in Art History and Art Conservation at the Metropolitan Museum.” The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 67.1 (2009): 4-11. Web.

TSA: Are we really safer?

Since September 11, 2001, airport screening procedures in the US have been continuously evolving with the creation of the Transportation Security Administration (TSA). With the implementation of new technology being used in airports, air travel has been more stringent than ever. The new question being raised is whether these new security procedures will “make us safer” or just “move the targets.”

In the case of the deadly attack at Istanbul’s Ataturk International Airport, thecity’s main international airport, highlighted a difficult truth in airport security. Subjecting passengers to more security before they board a plane doesn’t necessarily deter terrorists. The major differences in security procedures begin with how passengers enter the airport. At Ataturk, vehicles are screened about a mile away with some cars being pulled over for additional search (Blalock). Passenger are then passed through metal detectors and their bags scanned before entering the terminal. This differs from US airports where anyone can enter the airport terminal without being screened. Turkish officials reported that the terrorists were turned away at the initial screening but returned with assault rifles entering the building forcibly. According to Mark Stewart, a professor at the University of Newcastle in Australia who studies how to protect against infrastructure attacks, “attempting to ‘protect’ against mass casualty attacks is a somewhat hopeless task due to the near infinite number of targets.” He later noted that a “deterred terrorist will just go elsewhere” (Perisco).

In the attack at Brussels Airport in March of 2016, there was no security check to enter the airport terminal and the terrorists just entered the building and detonated their explosives. Since that incident, all passengers were required to be dropped off at nearby parking lots instead of the airport terminal directly. The security in the German airports are much more thorough which makes lines longer and overcrowding more common. Trade offs commonly include passengers missing their flights and connections costing airlines major financial burden on rerouting new itineraries. Terrorists also view crowds of people as a major inefficiency and view them as ‘holes’ in airport security making them more susceptible to attacks (Seidenstat).

Figure 2: Statistics of TSA security and Firearms discovered in Airports

With new devices such as full-body scanners that use ‘millimeter wave’ detection to create a 3D image of the body, airport security officials are able to quick rule out potential threats concealed in clothing and on the body. With MRI technology being used in baggage scanners, liquids and other electronics can be passed through the machine without being removed reducing queue time (Frederickson).

Figure 3: Top Number of Airports where guns are confiscated by the TSA.

The passenger screening process is constantly trying to strike a balance between offering security while making travel quick and efficient. This balancing act not only has important implications within passenger security but also for the airline industry that is faced with volatile energy prices and sometimes burdensome labor agreements (Frederickson).

References:

Blalock, Garrick, Kadiyali Vrinda, and Simon Daniel H. “The Impact of Post‐9/11

Airport Security Measures on the Demand for Air Travel.” The Journal of Law & Economics 50.4

(2007): 731-55. Web.

http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/519816

Persico, Nicola, and Todd Petra E. “Passenger Profiling, Imperfect Screening, and Airport

Security.” The American Economic Review 95.2 (2005): 127-31. Web.

http://www.jstor.org/stable/4132803

Seidenstat, P. (2004), Terrorism, Airport Security, and the Private Sector. Review of Policy

Research, 21: 275–291. doi:10.1111/j.1541-1338.2004.00075.x

Frederickson, H. G. and LaPorte, T. R. (2002), Airport Security, High Reliability, and the

Problem of Rationality. Public Administration Review, 62: 33–43. doi:10.1111/1540-

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