Bernard Malamud’s The Assistant is one of the seminal works of Jewish fiction in the 20^th century. Morris Bober is the Jewish grocer who cannot break the cycle of perpetual poverty. He “never alter[s] his fortune, unless degrees of poverty [mean] alteration, for luck and he [are], if not natural enemies, not good friends” (16). Bober’s modest neighborhood grocery store has not grown much over the 20 some-odd years it has been open. He life he has made for his family and himself after World War II in Brooklyn is not much. The store is open for most Jewish holidays, so the family obviously does not particularly note or celebrate them (reference?) Being one of only a handful of Jewish merchants in the neighborhood makes Bober a target for harsh anti-Semitism: his store is robbed by two men who say bigoted phrases, like “You’re a Jew liar” (25) and “Your Jew ass is bad, you understand?” (26). This event leads to Bober losing the mere $10 he earns that day, in addition to suffering a crippling blow to the head.

Ida Bober, Morris’ wife, accurately depicts their misfortune when it comes to the business:

Everything we did too late. The store we didn’t sell in time. I said, ‘Morris, sell now the store.’ You said, ‘Wait.’ What for? The house we bought too late, so we have still a big mortgage that it’s hard to pay every month. ‘Don’t buy,’ I said, ‘times are bad.’ ‘Buy,’ you said, ‘will get better. We will save rent.’

It is a hardship even to sell the grocery store. Is the difficulty due to prejudice, the Brooklyn neighborhood, or general lack of wealth after World War II?

The Bobers’ daughter, Helen, is the symbol of changing America. Her father, Morris, laments at his inability to support her during her childhood years, saying, “for myself I don’t care, for you I want the best but what did I give you?” (21). Helen replies, “I’ll give myself… there’s hope” (21). Even though times are hard, Helen holds hope for the future, which assumedly requires even further limitation of Jewish practice to succeed economically.

Ida Bober calls a regular Polish customer “die antisemitke” (32), or the anti-Semite. Though Ida senses the anti-Semitic attitude, the customer’s daily payment for a roll and the occasional pickle is necessary to stay in business. In the same vein, the customer’s anti-Semitism must be put on hold for the novelty of a “Jewish roll” or “Jewish pickle” (32).

The ubiquity of hardship in this post-war era is present in the new character of Frank Alpine, also known as “the stranger” who visits this small Brooklyn town and eventually works for Morris. While Morris questions the stranger’s history and how he came to Brooklyn, the stranger simply says, “I had a rough life” (33).

Philip Roth is another renowned writer in the Jewish scholarly world. His novels explore the neuroses and internal conflicts of Jewish characters. American Pastoral is perhaps the last novel in which his memorable character, Nathan Zuckerman, appears. Zuckerman’s relationship with a not-so-Jewish-looking Jew is the focus and evolution of American Pastoral.

Physically, Seymour Irving “the Swede” Levov, of Zuckerman’s memory and present experiences, does not look like a Jew. While describing the Swede of the past, Zuckerman says, “Of the few fair-complexioned Jewish students in our preponderantly Jewish public high school, none possessed anything remotely like the steep-jawed, insentient Viking mask of this blue-eyed blond born into our tribe as Seymour Irving Levov” (3). Not only is the Swede an enigma in physical beauty, but in physical strength, too. The Swede’s abilities in basketball, football and baseball earn him legend status as a high school student in the neighborhood and beyond. Of Swede’s individuality and importance, Zuckerman says he is “a boy as close to a goy as we were going to get” (10). This attitude suggests that at the time of Zuckerman’s high school years, the late 1940s, it is seen as a disadvantage to success to be Jewish. The only way, apparently, for Jews to make a name for themselves within their community is to bolster the successes of a boy whose talents they think are so non-Jewish that they bring them to a higher level of value. But what provokes this attitude that beauty and natural talent for sports like Swede has is non-Jewish? HE cannot be the only Jew that has played on a high school football team. What exactly promotes his status as a legend, and how does it affect his neighbors’ attitudes towards their own Jewish identities as related to their abilities to succeed?

Part of the Swede’s mystique, according to our ever-observant Zuckerman, is his “talent for ‘being himself’” (19). This statement insinuates that Jews of that era ordinarily have to pretend to be something they are not. This is confusing, then, because Zuckerman may be suggesting that all Jews have those talents, but the Swede is the only one confident enough and self-assured enough to use them. Further along, Zuckerman says that the Swede has “the natural modesty of someone for whom there were no obstacles, who appeared never to have to struggle to clear a space for himself” (19). This skewed remark demonstrates the preeminent attitude that families with more money had fewer struggles. In reality, the Swede’s grandfather and father have struggled to pull together and maintain a successful glovemaking business to support the family. Of course, Zuckerman does not learn about this history until he meets Swede for dinner 50 years after high school.

This dinner is imperative to teach Zuckerman that the supposed glory of the Swede is not everything he thinks it is. The Swede does not escape prostate cancer, death in the family or divorce. Do these revelations make Swede less of a goy (non-Jew) than before? Should he now be considered “more Jewish” for having endured more public struggles?

It is interesting to try to break apart and evaluate Zuckerman’s childhood adoration for the Swede. Like others, he is enchanted by the Swede’s athletic skills that seem to lift the Jewish community of Newark out of its World War II stupor and depression. Zuckerman speaks eloquently about Swede’s celebrity and his relationship top Judaism:

The Jewishness that he wore so lightly as one of the tall, blond athletic winners must have spoken to us… in our idolizing the Swede and his unconscious oneness with America, I suppose there was a tinge of shame and self-rejection. Conflicting Jewish desires awakened by the sight of him were simultaneously becalmed by him; the contradiction in Jews who want to fit in and want to stand out, who insist they are different and insist they are no different, resolved itself in the triumphant spectacle of this Swede who was actually only another of our neighborhood Seymours whose forebears had been Solomons and Sauls and who would themselves beget Stephens who would in turn beget Shawns. Where was the Jew in him? You couldn’t find it and yet you knew it was there. Where was the irrationality in him? Where was the crybaby in him? Where were the wayward temptations? No guile. No artifice. No mischief. All that he had eliminated to achieve his perfection. No striving, no ambivalence, no doubleness – just the style, the natural physical refinement of a star. (20)

Zuckerman’s almost Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness-esque adoration for Swede shows several problems in his own self-identity and his relationship with Judaism. First, Zuckerman notes that the Swede, being just another Jew from the block, will inevitably bear children with names that are less and less Jewish over the generations. This demonstrates the waning importance of obvious Jewish identifiers like names in the community. At the same time, the Swede represents everything the Jews want to be and nothing that they are. They see in him something Jewish, but cannot place their finger on it. He has become so non-Jewish in nature and behavior that he the most noteworthy Jews of all. Zuckerman aptly states, “I don’t imagine I’m the only grown man who was a Jewish kid aspiring to be an all-American kid during the patriotic war years” (19-20). This demonstrates the desire to shed Jewish identity in order to become more American. In other words, one cannot be American unless he or she releases his or her Jewishness.

Abramson, Edward A. “Bernard Malamud and the Jews: An Ambiguous Relationship.”

The Yearbook of English Studies. Vol. 24, Ethnicity and Representation in

American Literature, 1994. 146-156. Modern Humanities Research Association

Web 19 Oct 10 <http://www.jstor.org/stable/3507887>.

The article’s thesis:

My contention is the Bernard Malamud is not only far from being an author concerned with the plight of one small grouping of humanity, but that when he treats Jewish matters, most often he universalizes Jews, Jewish culture, history, and Judaism to such an extent as to render them no more than bases from which to explore the human condition.

Alter, Iska. “The Natural, The Assistant, and American Materialism.” The Good

Man’s Dilemma: Social Criticism in the Fiction of Bernard Malamud New York: AMS Press, Inc., 1981. 1-26. Rpt. In Twentieth-Century Literary Criticism. Ed. Janet Witalec. Vol. 129. Detroit: Gale, 2003. Literature Resource Center. Web 19 Oct 10 <http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CH1420047439&v=2.1&u=cuny_ccny&it=r&p=LitRC&sw=w>.

The thesis:

To embody his concerns as a Jew, an artist, and a moral man, Malamud has evolved a style that is uniquely his. Its fusion of the fabulous and the factual, called “lyrical realism” by the Yiddish critic Mayer Shticker, is the fictive analogue to the Chasidic belief that the mystical connection to God is to be found not in ascetic isolation, but through man’s participation in the ordinary activities and mundane events of daily existence.

Spevack, Edmund. “Racial Conflict and Multiculturalism: Bernard Malamud’s The

Tenants.” MELUS. Vol. 22, No. 3, Varieties of Ethnic Criticism (Autumn, 1997),

pp. 31-54. 26 Sept 10 <http://www.jstor.org/stable/467653>.

The problem of this article is stated in multiple questions:

One main goal of this essay will be to examine whether Malamud adheres to a belief in a clearly delineated formal and thematic mainstream at the beginning of the 1970s, or whether he ventures to depart from traditional mainstream attitudes towards non-Western peoples and their forms of literary expression. Another key problem arises directly from this fundamental issue: may Malamud’s novel (with its theme of racial antagonism in the United States, as well as its reflection on the varieties of literary forms of expression) be seen as anticipating the multiculturalism and canon debates of the 1980s and 1990s? Should Malamud’s work thus be seen merely as problematic (commenting on the current state of affairs in 1971) or perhaps also as somewhat prophetic (attempting a prognosis, whatever its accuracy, of future developments)?

Shear, Walter. “Culture Conflict in ‘The Assistant’.” The Midwest Quarterly. 7.4

(Summer 1966): 367-380. Rpt. in Contemporary Literary Criticism. Ed. James P. Draper and Jennifer Allison Brostrom. Vol. 78. Detroit: Gale Research, 1994. Literature Resource Center. Gale. CUNY – City College of New York. 20 Oct. 2010 <http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=LitRC&u=cuny_ccny>.

The thesis:

In The Assistant two cultures, the Jewish tradition and the American heritage (representing the wisdom of the old world and the practical knowledge of the new), collide and to some degree synthesize to provide a texture of social documentation which is manifested in a realistic aesthetic. However, the dichotomy is preserved and in fact given emphasis through an entirely different aesthetic presentation, one which tends to project the characters as types and treats their motivations, environments, and ideas as symbolic threads which link the narrative to the deeper level of personal significance from which the elements of human strength and weakness manage to emerge in the actions which both define and dramatize culture as a phenomenon.

Stanley, Sandra Kumamoto. “Mourning the ‘greatest generation’: myth and history

in Philip Roth’s American Pastoral.” Twentieth Century Literature. (Vol. 51). .1 (Spring 2005): p1. Literature Resource Center. Gale. CUNY – City College of New York. 20 Oct. 2010 <http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=LitRC&u=cuny_ccny>.

The thesis of this article can be summarized in this quote: “I would argue that in American Pastoral, Roth, in the guise of his alter ego Nathan Zuckerman, returns to a consideration of the sixties, but with a less satirical, more elegiac voice.”

Tuerk, Richard. “Jews Without Money as a Work of Art.” Studies in American

Jewish Literature. 7.1 (Spring 1988): 67-79. Rpt. in Literature Resource Center. Detroit: Gale, Literature Resource Center. Gale. CUNY – City College of New York. 20 Oct. 2010 <http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=LitRC&u=cuny_ccny>.

The thesis:

Jews Without Money may be “simple.” Still, it is more than a series of vivid, episodic, factual but roughhewn sketches of East Side life with a radical ending. It is, in fact, the end product of much revision, and it often comes closer to fiction than fact.

Ilya Ryvin
Position Paper
The Evolution of Television: The Road to Transmedia Storytelling
In his book Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide, renowned media analyst Henry Jenkins argues that we have entered a new era of media engagement. He has dubbed this the era of “convergence culture,” identifying the three key concepts that define it: “media convergence, participatory culture, and collective intelligence.” (Jenkins 2). In this age of convergence, media producers are creating stories that require a new type of audience engagement, one that forces audiences to hunt these stories down across multiple media channels. This narrative strategy, dubbed transmedia storytelling, has been implemented through a number of different media franchises, but it has been most effective in television programming. This, however, should not come as a surprise. Television has come a long way since its inception, and as I write this thesis, it is still evolving. I will argue that since its early days, television has undergone a number of changes, primarily in the areas of narrative complexity, technology, and the behaviors of both media industries and audiences, and that these changes ultimately lend themselves to the transmedia model.
In the early days of television, most television programs could be described as being episodic. Jason Mittell explains that the “dominant form of primetime television storytelling from the 1950s to the 1990s was self-contained episodic narration” that rarely “demanded knowledge from previous episodes to understand what’s going on” (Storytelling Technologies). Although there existed a “consistent setting, continuing characters, recurring themes and types of events,” there was ‘little or no long-term memory or persistence of the events and occurrences of what happens in any episode” (Storytelling Technologies). In other words, audiences were able watch a random episode without having to worry about comprehending it had they missed the episode from the prior week. The Twilight Zone, for example, is an extreme form of an episodic program, with each episode having no relation character or plot-wise to the episode that came before or after it. There were, of course, less extreme cases of episodic programming
Around the 1980s, a new type of narrative emerged. This narrative created a “storyworld [with] continuity” that depended on “consistent viewing and accurate memories” (Serial Boxes). This model borrowed many of its conventions from serialized daytime soap operas, creating a hybrid that mixed episodic and serialized norms. Jason Mittell argues that this form lent itself well to “the generic forms of cop shows, medical dramas, and sitcoms,” citing shows like Hill St. Blues and Cheers, where they typically “featur[ed] some episodic plotlines alongside multi-episode arcs and ongoing relationship dramas” with “relationship stories carry[ing] over between episodes” while the medical or police cases resolved themselves within a single episode (Narrative Complexity 33). The aforementioned hybrid model was further expanded on in the 90s through the implementation of “story arcs across episodes and seasons,” and shows like The X-Files and Buffy the Vampire Slayer best exemplify this narrative evolution through their innovative combination of “long-term arc storytelling and stand-alone episodes” (Narrative Complexity 33). For example, each of the seven seasons of Buffy features a primary villain whose storyline spans the entire season. Every episode advances that season long arc, while at the same time “offering episodic coherence and miniresolutions” (Narrative Complexity 33).
Other than the combination of lengthy story arcs and episodic conventions, narratives of the past 30 years have grown increasingly complex in the ways they’ve demanded audiences to make sense of them. In his book, Everything Bad Is Good For You: How Today’s Popular Culture Is Actually Making Us Smarter, Steven Johnson argues that this complexity “involves three primary elements: multiple threading, flashing arrows, and social networks” (Johnson 65). For the purpose of this paper, I will focus primarily on multiple threading and what this has done for modern narratives as I feel that it has more relevance to narrative complexity than the other two elements. Johnson explains that traditional narratives often had one or two narrative threads, or plots. For example, any episode of Dragnet followed the following formula: the crime, the investigation, and the resolution. Starsky and Hutch usually had two threads, one following the villain’s narrative while the other followed Starsky and Hutch’s narrative.
Johnson cites Hill St. Blues as the primary innovator of the multithreaded drama, identified by the increased number of narrative threads, an increase in the number of primary characters, and the fact that some threads crossed over from one episode to the next. Programs like Lost take these narrative complexities even further. Each episode has a number of storylines running alongside each other, with no one narrative taking precedent over another. Each episode also includes an extensive flashback sequence, exploring the extensive back-story of a specific character or characters. There is also very little episodic coherence, with the threads from one episode almost always spilling over to the next with resolution far and between.
It is important to note that these more complex narratives have not replaced episodic ones. There are a number of popular programs on television today that follow the episodic model, including the CSI and the Law and Order franchises. It is also important to note that I am not placing a value judgment on any particular narrative form.
The Twilight Zone was, and still is, regarded as a wonderfully creative program that delivered some of the most memorable science-fiction narratives. Likewise, not every complex narrative is effective, sometimes making it a season or two before the narrative became too muddled to follow. What I am trying to get across is that overall, narratives have gotten more complex, forcing audiences to follow, attain and ultimately retain more information.
These narrative changes, however, would not be possible if it were not for a number of technological advances. The conventional wisdom in the early days of television was that narratives needed to be simple; otherwise, producers feared they would lose audiences. For example, if and episode is not self contained and relies on information revealed from a prior episode, someone who missed that episode would have a much harder time piecing together the narrative. This fear had more to do with the model of television broadcasting than it did with the nature of earlier audiences. Audiences had no real access to missed episodes, and syndication at the time “favored interchangeable episodes of conventional sitcoms and procedural dramas” (Narrative omplexity 31). With the advent of the VCR in the 70s, this became less of an issue. VCRs gave audiences the ability to record their favorite programs, meaning that if a person was going to miss an episode of their favorite series, they could simply record it and watch it at a later time. Recording technologies have made their way to the digital age, with the likes of TiVo and other digital video recorders making the entire process much easier and more organic. This makes producers more confident about creating programs that are narratively complex. Jason Mittell puts it best when he says that “time-shifting technologies like VCRs and digital video recorders enable viewers to choose when they want to watch a program, but, more important for narrative construction, viewers can rewatch episodes or segments to purse out complex moments” (Narrative Complexity 31). Likewise, DVDs have allowed consumers to purchase entire season of their favorite programs. DVDs give consumers the option to “rewatch for depth of references, impressive displays of craft and continuities, and appreciate details that require the liberal use of pause and rewind” (Serial Boxes). Of course, this idea of rewatchability will only work if the show has elements that make it worthy of rewatching. In other words, the narrative needs to have a number of analyzable complexities and intricacies that would inspire fans to scrutinize the program.
Lastly, the behavior of both audience and media industries cannot be ignored when looking at the evolution of television narrative. The Internet has widely changed the consumer/producer relationship, offering interactivity unlike any that came before it. Mittell explains that the “internet has become more central to the television medium, with both official and illicit downloadable shows, transmedia narrative extensions, and the rise of sites like Hulu and YouTube as alternative ways to view a wide range of programming” (Serial Boxes). However, I argue that the Internet plays another important role. Ivan Askwith argues that “we are now operating in an attention economy, where media producers and advertisers view attention itself as the most valuable of commodities, and it is the pursuit of viewer attention that has led the media and advertising industries to their newest point of obsession: audience engagement” (Askwith 17). His notion of audience engagement is not dissimilar to Jenkins’ ideas behind his theories regarding convergence culture. Audiences can watch their favorite programs online, legally and illegally, interact with fans, interact with producers, and even shape content. In many ways, audiences can now shape what degree of engagement they can have with their television programs, whereas before it was the sole right of the studio to decide when and what audiences would watch. If the narrative is intriguing and at the same time complex, the Internet opens up a myriad of possibilities for engagement. Jason Mittell most aptly described this when he said that the Internet “has enabled fans to embrace a “collective intelligence” for information, interpretations, and discussions of complex narratives that invite participatory engagement-and in instances such as Babylon 5 or Veronica Mars, creators join in the discussions and use these forums and feedback mechanisms to test for comprehension and pleasures” (Askwith 31-32).

Works Cited
Askwith, Ivan D. “Television 2.0: Reconceptualizing TV as an Engagement Medium.” Thesis. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2007. Web. 19 Oct. 2010.
Jenkins, Henry. Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide. New York: New York University Press, 2006. Print.
Johnson, Steven. Everything Bad Is Good for You: How Today’s Popular Culture Is Actually Making Us Smarter. New York: Riverhead Books, 2005. Print. Johnson
Mittell, Jason. “Narrative Complexity in Contemporary American Television.” The Velvet Light Trap Fall.58 (2006): 29-40. Web. 19 Oct. 2010. .
Mittell, Jason. “Serial Boxes.” Just TV. 20 Jan. 2010. Web. 27 Oct. 2010. .
Mittell, Jason. “Storytelling Technologies.” Just TV. 13 May 2007. Web. 27 Oct. 2010. .

Abstract Title:

Ending Dualism at Hogwarts: Reading Harry Potter as Postmodern Apocalyptic Fiction

Name of Author, (Faculty Advisor), Department, Institution and Institutional Address

Ariana Tobias, (Nico Israel and Lee Quinby), English Department, Macaulay Honors College and CUNY Hunter, New York, NY 10065

Abstract:

The Harry Potter series ignited a debate within the American Christian community between fundamentalists, who believe the books are dangerously subversive to Christianity, and more moderate Christians, who emphasize the triumph of Christian values like faith, love, redemption, and the victory of good over evil. Both sides are perceptive, but neither tells the whole story. Apocalyptic morality, as set forth in the Book of Revelation, promotes hierarchy and dualism based on black-and-white absolutes like “good” versus “evil.” Similar binary classifications and accompanying value judgments have evolved to dominate Western perceptions of race, gender, sexuality, and religion.

Morality in Harry Potter, by contrast, isn’t simply about the struggle between good and evil; it’s the struggle to transcend the dualism that promotes conflicts of good versus evil. As Elizabeth Rosen’s work on postmodern apocalyptic fiction shows, some authors have challenged the legitimacy of moral systems based in apocalyptic absolutism. I argue that J.K. Rowling’s fictional metanarrative about prejudice in the wizarding world delivers such a challenge. Rowling offers a combination of the five traditional essential elements of apocalypse, a postmodern rejection of metanarratives of prejudice, and an emphasis on the power of love to create an alternative moral system that is not based on dualistic extremes, but, rather, transcendence of apocalyptic morality. My text-based analysis of the series demonstrates how Rowling achieves this without succumbing to the traditional apocalyptic paradigm–even when the “good guys” win.

I intend to examine the necessary legal restructuring for Iceland to emerge from the current financial crisis with a strong economy structured around the restoration of- (1) fishing stocks, (2) wetlands, and (3) the full implementation of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS).  I consider the most profitable and sustainable app[i]roaches to rebuilding Iceland’s economy, identify challenges that emerge and the legal framework which ensures minimal exploitation of Iceland’s natural resources. Iceland has the second largest untapped geothermal energy in the world, and the largest area of pristine wilderness in Scandinavia. Iceland’s geothermal energy is slowly being auctioned off to foreign companies to make up for lost government revenue. It is important for Iceland to find other solutions for creating revenue that will generate long-term employment, and cause minimal exploitation to the environment.

First, I argue for Iceland’s admission to the EU and full adaptation of ETS. An internal working paper released in May 2010 by the European Commission maintains that EU member states could make €26 billion in profit annually by 2020 through auctioning emission permits, and as much as €928 million a year by 2012 through the auctioning of permits to airlines.[ii] The profit Iceland could make, especially in light of their heavy airline traffic and vast geothermal- and hydro energy, will strengthen their economy considerably, and could be incentive to cease further aluminum smelter negotiations with Alcoa.   Iceland applied for EU membership in July 2009, negotiations started in July 2010, and now the EU has opened accession talks. The European Commission recognizes that Iceland has already assimilated many of its national laws in accordance with EU laws.[iii] But progress has halted because the EU demands Iceland resolve the continued dispute with the UK and the Netherlands over the money lost when the online Icesave bank collapsed.[iv] Public opposition to joining the European Union is also a challenge.[v] Media and polls document public fear that the EU will regulate fishing quotas and whaling. But joining the EU would ensure vital legal restrictions on excessive external exploitation of geothermal extraction[vi] by means of the full implementation of the EU ETS.[vii] Fully implementing the EU ETS would also give Iceland further incentive to ease their dependency on renewing business contracts with Alcoa, and the planned expansion of aluminum smelters throughout Iceland, which have devastating impact on local farming communities. [viii] Iceland will not join the EU unless Icelanders support the decision in a referendum that may be held in early 2012. According to three polls conducted by Gallup between May and September 2010, 69 percent of those asked oppose Iceland joining the EU. There are concerns expressed by politicians that Iceland will no longer have a say in EU laws affecting national politics. [ix] This is a misconception. By joining the EU, Iceland would gain autonomy. Already a member of the EEA, Iceland implements all laws of the common market, except for agreements on fisheries and agricultural policy. Because a large majority of Iceland’s current laws are decided in Brussels, joining the EU means Iceland has a say laws already adopted by the Icelandic Parliament. Thus, Iceland would gain more autonomy by joining the EU.[x]

Second, I argue for wetland and wildlife restoration. New legislation from the Environmental- and Planning Ministry of Iceland proposes considerable limitation on foreign access to Iceland’s natural resources—the water, wetlands, glaciers, geothermal- and hydro energy for smelters.[xi] Proposals from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change outline the importance, and potential profit, of implementing a legislative remedy to wetland restoration.[xii] Restoring drained and degraded wetlands would reduce carbon, nitrous oxide and methane from the atmosphere—an innovative means for Iceland to meet their annual EU ETS emissions requirements.

Third, I argue for the commitment to fish stock restoration. Fish stock restoration is vital to the Icelandic economy as 60% of Icelandic exports are fish products.[xiii] In order to restore fishing stocks, there must be strict government regulation.  But citizens and politicians are also wry of outside intervention in national fishing matters, and fears are often publicly expressed that joining the EU will cause outside intervention in national quota laws.[xiv] Public distrust is exemplified by a history of fishing “wars” with the United Kingdom, most famously the Cod-wars.[xv] To combat the dangers of fish depletion, fishing stocks must be restored through stricter government regulation, which ensures appropriate national laws are in place to protect Iceland’s fishing interests before the country joins the EU.

My paper will explore how the implementation of the EU ETS, and legal restructuring which mandates restoration of fishing stocks and wetlands, can fuel Iceland’s economy, and create long-term job solutions that do not disappear when natural resources are tapped out. I will consider why joining the EU will give Iceland more autonomy by allowing the country to contribute to EU discourse on laws which have already been adopted.

[ii] Wit, Ron, Bart Boon, André van Velzen, Martin Cames, Odette Deuber, and

David Lee, “Giving Wings to Emissions Trading: Inclusion of Aviation Under the European Emission Trading System, Design and Impacts,” European Commission, May 2010,

http://ec.europa.eu/environment/climat/pdf/aviation_et_study.pdf (accessed October 8, 2010).

[iii] “EU Enlargement: The Next Eight,” BBC World News, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11283616 (accessed September 14, 2010).

[iv] Neelman, David, “Grimsson Says Iceland Seeks Solution in Depositor Spat: Video,” Washington Post Online, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/video/2010/09/14/VI2010091407299.html (accessed September 24, 2010).

[v] “Many Icelanders Keen on Adopting Euro, Mixed on EU,” Gallup,” http://www.gallup.com/poll/118381/icelanders-keen-adopting-euro-mixed.aspx (accessed October 5, 2010).

[vi] Sigurjónsson, Júlís, “Forsetar Raeddu Orkumalin,” Morgunbladid,” http://www.mbl.is/mm/frettir/innlent/2010/09/19/forsetar_raeddu_orkumalin/ (accessed September 19, 2010).

[vii] “Establishing a Scheme for Greenhouse Gas Emission Allowance Trading Within the Community and Amending Council Directive 96/61/EC,” Journal of the European Union, http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2003:275:0032:0032:EN:PDF (accessed September 14, 2010).

[viii] Del Giudice, Marguerite, “Power Struggle,” National Geographic Magazine, http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/03/iceland/del-giudice-text (accessed September 22, 2010).

[ix] Brown, Ian T., “Many Icelanders Keen on Adopting Euro, Mixed on EU,” Gallup, http://www.gallup.com/poll/118381/icelanders-keen-adopting-euro-mixed.aspx (accessed October 5, 2010).

[ix] As proposed, but never implemented, by Icelandic parliament for AWG-KP 6, part I meeting in Acura 2008.

[x] Van Treek, Sophia, “Sophia and the EU,” The Reykjavik Grapevine, http://www.grapevine.is/Home/ReadArticle/Sophia-And-The-EU- (accessed October 18, 2010).

[xi] “Legislation,” Ministry for the Environment, Iceland, http://eng.umhverfisraduneyti.is/legislation/ (accessed October 5, 2010).

[xii] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, “Iceland – Economic Analysis of Climate Change Mitigation Potential,” KP Workshop, Bonn, 27 March 2009, http://unfccc.int/files/kyoto_protocol/application/pdf/1_8_iceland.pdf (accessed October 18, 2010).

[xiii] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, “FAO Country Profiles, Iceland,” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, http://www.fao.org/countryprofiles/index.asp?lang=en&iso3=ISL&subj=4 (accessed October 18, 2010).

[xiv] McFarlane, Andrew, “Why Is Britain Braced for a Mackerel War?” BBC World News, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-11062674 (accessed August 25, 2010); BBC News, “Faroes and Iceland urged to back down over mackerel,” BBC News, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-11199799 (accessed September 10, 2010); BBC News, “Scottish fishermen are to boycott a meeting in the Faroe Islands over the host country’s decision to unilaterally increase mackerel quotas,” BBC News, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-11199799 (accessed September 10, 2010).

[xv] The Cod wars, or Þorskastríðin, was a series of territorial confrontations in the 1950s and 1970s regarding fishing rights in the Atlantic between the United Kingdom and Iceland. In 1976 Britian deployed naval vessels within the disputed waters and Iceland treatened to close the major NATO base in Keflavik—the dispute ended shortly thereafter.

BBC News, “1975: Attack on British vessels heightens Cod War,” BBC News, http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/11/newsid_2546000/2546045.stm (accessed September 22, 2010).

1. European Commission Climate Action, http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/eu/index_en.htm, accessed October 18, 2010.

This website helps me to understand the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS). I can access the information of almost everything pertaining to the EU ETS, including recent proposals by other countries and legal amendments. This website publishes estimates, and realities, of the fiscal benefits of implementing the EU ETS. The website also publishes reports, such as the internal working paper released in May 2010 by the European Commission which maintains that the EU member states could profit as much as €26 billion annually by 2020 through auctioning emission permits and as much as €928 million a year by 2012 through the auctioning of permits to airlines, a new addition to the Phase III of the ETS which begins January 2013. There are no specific points of view this website takes other than promoting the EU ETS. I access this website weekly.

2. Swan, Jon, “The Icelandic Rift Industry Versus Natural Splendor in a ‘Progressive’ Nation,” Orion Magazine, March/April 2004, http://www.savingiceland.org/2005/09/the-icelandic-rift-industry-versus-natural-splendor-in-a-progressive-nation-by-jon-swan/, accessed October 18, 2010.

Provides important historical information regarding Iceland’s involvement with Alcoa and the privatization of the geothermal energy. Helps to strengthen my argument on why the further privatization of Iceland’s geothermal energy would be detrimental to Iceland’s economy in the long run, which in turn further justifies my recommendation of the necessity for stricter regulation of geothermal energy. Swan draws on financial data to illustrate why heavy industry weakens the Icelandic currency, and how it contributed to the current financial crisis. Swan also draws on ecological- and case studies to exemplify the long-term dangers of executing heavy industry projects that strip the land of natural resources. I access this website weekly.

3. Iceland Nature Conservation Association, http://www.inca.is, accessed October 18, 2010.

I utilize this as a source for news and policy proposals. This site rounds up national news pertaining to the protection of Icelandic nature. The website helps me to locate the most recent national findings pertaining to the exploitation of Iceland’s natural resources, as well as the national response. Usually, the articles found on this website support more environmental regulation, and favor sustainable approaches to industry, which exclude the involvement of Alcoa. I access this website weekly.

4. BBC World News, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news, accessed October 18, 2010.

I utilize this website as a means of monitoring the British take on events that are going on in Iceland. The BBC World News is especially helpful for following coverage of Iceland’s ‘fishing wars,’ and other issues pertaining to fishing stock restoration. I cite many articles from the BBC World News while discussing the necessity of fishing stock restoration. The slant of the BBC articles is arguably more sympathetic to British foreign policy, but the information is factually correct. I access this website weekly.

5. The European Union, http://europa.eu/index_en.htm, accessed October 18, 2010.

I use this website to monitor recent developments within the European Union, especially new legislation and treaties. This offers me a greater understanding of how the EU functions. I access this website bimonthly.

6. Althingi Islands (the Icelandic Parliament), http://www.althingi.is/, accessed October 18, 2010.

This is the official website of the Icelandic Parliament. I use this website to track past and current legislation, as well as to gain insight into current political trends and opinions (usually by listening to the speeches made by the heads of the main political parties). This website is important because it backs up my assertions that Iceland should join the EU as well as utilize wetland restoration as a means of meeting EU ETS emissions requirements because I can hear the politicians discussing the proposals, such as Svandis Svavarsdottir’s address on February 2, 2010 where she urges members parliament and the Environmental Planning Committee to seriously consider a complete restructuring of environmental- and energy policies in preparation for Phase III of the ETS, drawing a connection between the current financial crisis in Iceland and their involvement with heavy industry. Her speech, and other findings, helps to strengthen my thesis claim that Iceland must restructure the wetlands and fully embrace the EU ETS. (Svavarsdottir is the chair of the Left-green movement which currently holds parliamentary majority. She is also the Minister of the Environment.) I access this website biweekly.

7. Umhverfisráðuneytis (The Ministry of Environment), http://www.umhverfisraduneyti.is/, accessed October 18, 2010.

I utilize this website as a reference for environmental legislation in Iceland, as well as a source for current proposals and reports. I access this website weekly.

8. Landbúnaður (Ministry of land-use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF)) , http://landbunadur.is/landbunadur/wgsamvef.nsf/key2/index.html, accessed October 18, 2010.

I utilize this website as a reference for current legislation pertaining to the land-use in Iceland. It is a vital source for current wetland restoration proposals. I can also track the history of land permits, which helps me to understand Iceland’s history with Alcoa. I access this website bimonthly.

9. Saving Iceland, www.savingiceland.org, accessed October 18, 2010.

I utilize this site as a source for news. The web site rounds up international news pertaining to Iceland’s involvement with international corporations involved with the privatization and exploitation of natural resources. This website also helps to further my argument of why Iceland must protect its natural resources as a means to ensure biodiversity and fiscal independence. The material found on the website is always sympathetic to the environment, and critical of heavy industry and foreign control of natural resources. I access this website weekly.

10. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, “Iceland – Economic Analysis of Climate Change Mitigation Potential,” KP Workshop, Bonn, 27 March 2009, http://unfccc.int/files/kyoto_protocol/application/pdf/1_8_iceland.pdf, accessed October 18, 2010.

A policy proposal that evaluates the environmental and fiscal motivations for why Iceland, and other small countries with industry, should focus on wetland restoration as a means of meeting their yearly EU ETS emissions requirements. Includes the scale and cost of mitigation actions, and justifications for adopting such measures. The proposal outlines why wetland life restoration is productive as a means to meet the yearly carbon emissions quota (as applicable to member states of the EU ETS), and why/how adopting such measures will promote sustainability initiatives while simultaneously generating money.

11. Tuerk, Andreas, ed. Linking Emissions Trading Schemes. London: Earthscan Publications, 2009.

This is a collection of essays by different scholars and politicians throughout the world. The articles outline how different countries are implementing the EU ETS. The research included in this book examines the economic, political and institutional implications of implementing the EU ETS. All of the articles are analytical, but some are more critical than others. The collection is most helpful to me because it explores different approaches to implementing the EU ETS, as well as how countries can link their approaches to make the ever-evolving EU ETS scheme more efficient.

12. Freestone, David and Charlotte Streck, eds. Legal Aspects of Carbon Trading: Kyoto, Copenhagen and Beyond. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.

This book embraces the EU ETS, exploring the main legal issues which are raised by the explosion of carbon finance, that is the EU ETS. In addition, the Kyoto Flexibility Mechanisms are explored, which further my understanding of how wetland restoration can be applied as a means of meeting annual carbon caps. The book also gives a superb background of the EU ETS. Unlike many other sources, this one explores in detail the one of the newest phases of the EU ETS, the aircraft emissions scheme, as well as the latest mitigation actions that countries are taking in light of the increased climate change worries.

The Harry Potter series ignited a debate within the American Christian community between fundamentalists, who believe the books are dangerously subversive to Christianity, and more moderate Christians, who point out biblical symbolism in the books and the triumph of Christian values like faith, love, redemption, and the victory of good over evil. On one hand, Richard Abanes, author of Harry Potter and the Bible: The Menace Behind the Magick, argues that the Harry Potter series contains “spiritually dangerous material that could ultimately lead youth down the road to occultism” and promotes “unbiblical values and unethical behavior (6).” On the other hand, Christian minister John Killinger explains parallels between Harry Potter and the New Testament in an attempt to prove that ultimately, “the master plot, the one underlying the entire novel, is the critical struggle between good and evil” with Harry as Christ and Voldemort as Satan (38).

Neither of these points of view fully appreciate J.K. Rowling’s use of Christian dogma to challenge Christian morality, especially as derived from the Book of Revelation. Those who believe the Harry Potter series undermines Christianity have correctly recognized the series’ effect, but have misidentified the mechanisms Rowling uses to achieve that end. In fact, Christian supporters of the books deserve credit for drawing attention to the importance of good and evil in the series, but they oversimplify the dichotomy to the point of misunderstanding when they use it as proof of the books’ “Christian” morality. By examining how Rowling retells and revises the apocalyptic myth of the Book of Revelation to deliver a decidedly non-Christian moral message, I will show that Harry Potter provides a social critique of modern-day, Western Christian society.

The Book of Revelation promotes hierarchical, dualistic thinking based on black-and-white absolutes like “good” and “evil.” Binary classification and accompanying value judgments dominate Western perceptions of race (white vs. minority), gender (male vs. female), sexuality (straight vs. gay), and religion (Christian vs. heretics). Morality in Harry Potter, however, isn’t simply about the struggle between good and evil, it is the struggle to transcend dualism rooted in the concepts of good and evil. By setting her story in a world in which characters do not fit neatly into one of two molds, Rowling creates an alternative to traditional Christian morality. Significantly, Rowling appropriates the narrative structure of the Book of Revelation by including in Harry Potter the same plot elements as the original apocalyptic story: divine authority, receiver of a prophesy, the end of the world, Judgment day, and transcendence. The books, therefore, can be read as postmodern apocalyptic fiction, a sub-genre of apocalyptic literature in which authors adopt the apocalyptic narrative of the Book of Revelation, but challenge traditional apocalyptic dualism.

References

Abanes, Richard. Harry Potter and the Bible: The Menace Behind the Magick. Camp Hill, PA: Horizon – Christian Publications, 2001. Print.

Killinger, John. God, the Devil, and Harry Potter: A Christian Minister’s Defense of the Beloved Novels. New York, NY: Thomas Dunne – St. Martin’s Press, 2002. Print.

The apocalyptic prophesy of the Book of Revelation is meant to convey a sense of cosmic order, a reassurance that God has a master plan and will eventually deliver humanity (or some of it) from suffering and chaos. In this sense, the Book of Revelation and other apocalyptic narratives are stories designed to bring comfort to communities afflicted by persecution and violence. At the same time, the text prompts a powerless group to seek deliverance in the promise of ultimate divine judgment against their perceived oppressors. Subscribing to the apocalyptic belief of the Book of Revelation allows powerless communities to maintain their faith and tolerate living in times of crisis and chaos, since these ordeals are seen as merely the temporary forerunners of an eternal, divine social order.

Elizabeth Rosen argues the apocalyptic myth is more powerful than other paradigms humans have used to make sense of social conditions (like conspiracy theory and chaos theory) because “it encompasses a moral dimension” and “is naturally a vehicle for the analysis and criticism of behavior, whether of the individual, nation, or cosmos” (Rosen xiii). Yet apocalyptic narratives are not simply comforting stories told by persecuted groups. Yes, the version of morality offered by the Book of Revelation assures the faithful their heavenly rewards, but it also condemns sinners, “the other” to the believers, to eternal damnation and rejects any possibility of existence between these two extremes. This black and white, dualistic morality creates a hierarchical value system that limits classification of identities to one of only two potential categories and then perpetually venerates one as the ideal and the other as inferior, if not downright abhorrent.

Throughout the course of history, binary extremes like the one described above and the accompanying value judgments have dominated Western perceptions of race (white vs. minority), gender (male vs. female), sexuality (straight vs. gay), and religion (Christian vs. heretics). The rhetoric of the Book of Revelation creates “a regime of truth that operates within a field of power relations and describes a particular moral behavior” (Quinby, Anti-Apocalypse xv). By asserting that there is only one Truth, and only one legitimate moral hierarchy, Christian apocalypticism has a long history of being used effectively to demonize the other – Romans before Constantine, Jews in the third and fourth centuries, medieval women, Muslims and Jews during the Crusades (Kirsch 108, 130, 164).

One specific example of this type of moral-based dualism can be found in the description of the two female archetypes in the Book of Revelation: Jezebel/the Whore of Babylon, and the Mother of Christ/Bride of Christ. The former is sinful and impure– she fornicates and “repented not” (Revelation 2:21). “God hath remembered her iniquities” and she is punished for her transgressions (Revelation 18:5). On the other hand, the latter is “a great wonder in heaven; a woman clothed with the sun, and the moon under her feet, and upon her head a crown of twelve stars” (Revelation 12:1). She is innocent and pure, fit to wear “fine linen, clean and white: for the fine linen is the righteousness of saints” (Revelation 19:8).

It is in America, however, where church and state are supposedly separate, and where allegedly “all men are created equal,” that the dualism of Revelation has shaped and continues to shape the culture in decidedly undemocratic ways. Examples of apocalyptic demonization of other include religious leaders in both the Union and the Confederacy using apocalyptic propaganda to garner support for their causes, and fundamentalists seeing “union labels on factory goods as ‘the mark of the beast’” (Kirsch 188, 193). Tools of the Antichrist

have been said to include bankers, biofeedback, credit cards, computers, the Council on Foreign Relations, feminism, Freudian psychology, the human-potential movement, Indian gurus, “international Jews,” lesbianism, the Masons, Montessori schools, secular humanism, the Trilateral Commission, Universal Product Codes, and the United Nations – and the list is certainly not comprehensive. (Kirsch 220)

In other words, anything that threatens the moral hierarchy established by the Book of Revelation, or undermines the idea that white Christian males are the elite, is considered evil. Apocalyptic “insistence on absolute morality, theologically justified patriarchy, and pre-ordained history with an (always imminent) End-time” inspired twentieth-century Christian fundamentalists to organize politically in opposition to abortion, gay rights, pornography, feminism, and a peaceful two-state solution in Israel (Quinby, Millennial Seduction 16; Kirsch 232, 239).

As L. Quinby and J. Kirsch have demonstrated, belief in the apocalyptic regime of truth is pervasive throughout American society. Even non-fundamentalists “hold notions of divine origin and metaphysical evil,” which in turn negatively influence a variety of ostensibly secular matters in the United States, including gender equality, race relations, the entertainment industry, news media, and so forth (Quinby, Anti-Apocalypse xii; Quinby, Millennial Seduction 8).

By stepping outside the power regime imposed by the traditional apocalyptic myth, it is possible to look beyond the Book of Revelation’s insistence on absolute truth and moral dualism and seek out other, perhaps less oppressive, certainly less binarily rigid, moral systems. Elizabeth Rosen writes about the postmodernist search for such alternatives, which has led postmodernists to “challenge, explode, or undermine the belief system or assumptions underlying this particular grand narrative [the traditional apocalyptic myth]” (Rosen xx). Rosen is particularly interested, however, in postmodern authors and filmmakers who undertake this subversive social critique from within the structure of the apocalyptic narrative itself.

Rosen’s definition of postmodern apocalypse stories assumes the traditional apocalyptic myth can be separated from the traditional apocalyptic narrative (Rosen xxi). The myth, as discussed above, promotes a dualistic, hierarchical worldview. The narrative, on the other hand, merely requires the use of the five essential plot elements that define the traditional apocalypse of the Book of Revelation. These are divine authority, receiver of a prophesy, the end of the world, Judgment day, and transcendence. If an apocalypse has been constructed in adherence with the five elements listed above, Rosen argues, postmodern authors are free to create their own myth, and use their apocalypse to teach the moral lessons of their choice.

For readers disinclined to accept the assumption that the myth can, in fact, be separated from the narrative, Rosen merely holds up the stories examined in Apocalyptic Transformation as examples of postmodernists’ success in doing so (Rosen xxi). To further her argument by demonstrating the validity of her assumption in works beyond the scope of her analysis, I propose the Harry Potter series, by J.K. Rowling, can be read as postmodern apocalyptic fiction that retains the traditional apocalyptic narrative structure while subverting the dualistic apocalyptic moral paradigm.

Rosen provides a thorough examination of the ways in which various secular authors adapt the apocalyptic narrative to suit their needs and still retain “the basic three themes of judgment, catastrophe, and renewal, but also the more specific motifs of deity and New Jerusalem” (Rosen xxii). In the next section, my analysis of the Harry Potter series will draw parallels between J.K. Rowling’s adaptations and the ones Rosen provides as evidence for the existence of postmodern apocalyptic literature as a genre. In addition, I will show how Rowling handles humanization of the deity figure, a non-linear conception of time, and the postmodern dilemma of non-judgmental judgment to serve as additional illustrations of the characteristics of postmodern apocalypse stories.

References

Kirsch, Jonathan. A History of the End of the World: How the Most Controversial Book in the Bible Changed the Course of Western Civilization. New York, NY: HarperOne – Harper, 2006. Print.

Quinby, Lee. Anti-Apocalypse: exercises in genealogical criticism. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1994. Print.

—. Millennial Seduction: A Skeptic Confronts Apocalyptic Culture. Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1999. Print.

Rosen, Elizabeth. Apocalyptic Transformation: Apocalypse and the Postmodern Imagination. Lanham, MD: Lexington – Rowman & Littlefield, 2008. Print.

I grew up in Iceland from the age of eleven till the age of twenty-one. I lived for a couple years with a family on a small dairy and sheep farm in the far north-eastern reaches, during which time I became involved in politics. The community was in the midst of consolidating districts; schools were closing; jobs were scarce. There was a lot of political tension. My foster-mother was running for a county assembly position. Everyone was engaged and had an opinion. Kids came to school knowing which side my foster mother was on. So, I was quick to read up on the different positions so I could answer attacks.  Quickly, I realized I disagreed with my foster-mother’s position–a more conservative approach which favored consolidation and increased privatization. Instead, I favored the green-left party’s doctrines, and immediately signed up for newsletters.

A year later, I turned sixteen, the age of graduation from High School in Iceland. I moved to Akureyri to continue my education, and then again to Reykjavik the following year. During this time, I became increasingly involved with various divisions of international and national social and environmental justice groups which staged protests against smelters being built by the American aluminum company, Alcoa.

News circulated about the irreversible damage to the nature the smelters were causing, in addttion to the increased pollution which was harming local farmers’ crops and animals.

I relate this particular aspect of my youth because it is my early experience with politics that helped mold many of the opinions I hold today regarding issues pertaining to the environment, legal approaches, and political philosophy. When I moved back to America at twenty-one, I had lived half my life in Iceland–eleven of arguably the most formative years of a person’s life. I had married an Icelander, spend some years living with an Icelandic family, I felt Icelandic. So, when the Icelandic economy collapsed in 2008, it was scary. Not only did I have all of the money I had saved up for Brooklyn College in an Icelandic bank account (which was frozen for two weeks), but my husband was called home to help his family recuperate some of their own economic losses by adding an additional household income. When I finally did have access to my bank account again, the money was worth 1/3 of what it had been only 14 days before.

The financial collapse, coupled with my history of involvement in the environmental justice movement in Iceland, made me want to write my thesis on what Iceland needs to do to recuperate not only financially, but also environmentally, following the increased privatization of their natural resources and the economic collapse of 2008. Stylistically, I chose to approach the thesis as a legal analysis because I hope to attend law school, where I intend on pursing public interest law. This in turn meant that I expect my audience to be professionals and/or scholars, but I also expect to give enough information that the reader will need no prior knowledge of Iceland to become engage in the text.

1. Fox, Fiona. “New Humanitarianism: Does It Provide a Moral Banner for the 21st Century?” Disasters 25.4 (2001): 275-89.
 
        Fox argues that the term “new humanitarianism” is a product of the post-Cold War era in order to address the emerging need of humanitarian aid. New humanitarian is fundamentally different from the concepts of traditional humanitarian, which is regarded as morally questionable. The distribution of humanitarian aid is political. The need for political awareness is necessary because blind distribution can be considered detrimental. Fox (2001), makes the argument that new humanitarianism allows for humanitarian aid organizations to reorganize aid distribution that solves the problems that were caused by traditional humanitarianism. This aid, it is argued, can be assessed more efficiently because the aid distribution becomes more transparent.
 
        The concept of humanitarian aid dates back to 1859, then Jean Henri Dunant watched thousands of military troops dying of agony in the battlefields of Solferino. Dunant goes on to found the International Committee of the Red Cross, ICRC. The ICRC is a non-governmental organization that has dedicated its efforts of distributing humanitarian aid based on the concepts of impartiality and neutrality. These two concepts are also mentioned in the Geneva Conventions in 1964, a leading international relations document that is the states the fundamental principles of human rights. Impartiality allows agencies to state opinions about the conflict publicly, while still distributing humanitarian aid equally to all warring parties involved in the conflict. Neutrality requires the agencies that are distributing aid to remain silent about the conflict and do not become involved in the politics of the conflict.
 
I can use this article as an introduction to the concept of “new humanitarianism.” First, I will use this article to define the term “new humanitarianism.” Second, I will use its historical background about the development of the humanitarian aid organizations and their role in humanitarian aid distribution. Although Fox supports new humanitarianism in her article, I believe that her argument will present a strong case for new humanitarianism with fundamental flaws in its concepts.
 
2. LeRiche, Matthew. “Unintended Alliance: The Co-option of Humanitarian Aid in Conflicts.” Parameters 2004: 104-20.
 
        LeRiche argues that the humanitarian aid has been an extension of military power. Warring parties often deprive the opponent party of aid by taking the spoils of winning a conflict. The combatants often use aid agencies as a tool of gaining resources because of their blinding supply of humanitarian aid. Combatants are proficient in the bureaucracies of the agencies and thus easily manipulate them to gain essential supplies with proper follow-up procedures. Tactics and strategies of combatants to require humanitarian aid are described. The movement from a humanitarian aid distribution to a war economy because of the re-distribution of humanitarian aid by rebels. Governments influence the decisions of the humanitarian aid distribution by the agencies.
Humanitarian aid can extend conflicts.
 
I can use this article to show how flawed new humanitarianism is through humanitarian aid distribution as a means of extending warring conflicts because it supplies aid as a form of resource to fuel conflicts. Humanitarian aid distributed is not coordinated properly and can lead to disastrous results.
 
3. Lischer, Sarah Kenyon. “Collateral Damage: Humanitarian Assistance as a Cause of Conflict.” International Security 28.1 (2003): 79-109.
 
        Lischer argues that aid can make the conflict worse. Specific political conditions can lead to conflict or cause the conflict to continue. Political cohesion of the refugees can directly effect the humanitarian aid distribution. Agencies that distribute humanitarian aid can orient themselves such that they become more efficient in their aid distribution. Humanitarian aid might be distributed with neutrality and impartiality but in reality the aid actually is politicized and distributed accordingly. Failure of the aid distribution in Rwanda is due to the lack of acknowledgement of the military presence in the camps by aid agencies. This militarization is due to the origin of the refugee status.
 
I can use this article to further my point that new humanitarianism can lead to results that are not essential to the main purpose of humanitarianism. This can be achieved by mentioning how rebels take aid and distribute it, which causes an extension in conflict.
 
4. Vayrynen, Raimo. “More Questions than Answers: Dilemmas of Humanitarian Action.” Peace and Change 24.2 (1999): 172-96.
 
        Vayrynen argues that politicization of humanitarian aid creates a fragmented international community that cannot function effectively. Militarization of humanitarian aid is essential in order to prevent combatants from abusing the aid. Militarization goes against the concept of impartiality. Increase in the amount of humanitarian can often led to increased conflict. Using Vayrynen’s definition of traditional humanitarianism: “Traditional humanitarianism” is a term that encompasses the beginnings of humanitarian aid distribution since 1859. This concept refers to the distribution of aid regardless of political affiliation.
 
I can use this article for the definition of new humanitarianism. “New humanitarianism” will be defined as a relatively new concept of distributing humanitarian aid based on political biases. New humanitarianism will be explained by stating how it derived from traditional humanitarianism, when it became an influential concept in humanitarian aid distribution, what examples in the history of humanitarian aid distribution constitutes as new humanitarianism, and how it fundamentally differs from traditional humanitarianism.
 
5. Barber, Ben. “Feeding Refugees, or War? The Dilemma of Humanitarian Aid.” Foreign Affairs 76.4 (1997): 8-14.
 
        Barber argues that moral relativity defined through the methods that are employed by militants to ensure their influence over refugee populations. The different areas that Barber addresses are victims that receive humanitarian aid be come rebels, rebels they to make deals with host countries, media, use local workers, limited amount of information that reaches refugees, and foreign allies support of rebel forces. Barber goes on to argue that in order to distribute humanitarian aid and to solve the refugee crisis there has to be a demilitarization of the camps. The demilitarization has to be a proactive effort, taken on by the humanitarian aid agencies.
 
I can use Barber’s principles of moral relativity to describe the ways that humanitarian aid has been used in not-so-humanitarian ways. Barber’s principles also helps the reader to understand the ways that rebels influence the refugee populations in order to maintain continuous aid input. This is important to my argument because it allows me to show how the methods used in aid distribution can affect refugees.
 
6. Terry, Fiona. Condemned to Repeat?: the Paradox of Humanitarian Action. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 2002.
 
        Terry argues that aid organizations continued to funnel aid into the camps seen after they knew that the other past cases had abused aid. Since money for the agencies comes from the state the organizations followed a methodology that was political. Some agencies stayed in the camps to address the immediate concerns of the population. Other agencies left because they thought that it was unjust to be neural in aid distribution. The failure of agencies to fully help the refugees has questioned the fundamental imperative of humanitarian aid relief.
 
I can use this book to show how aid organizations have misused the distribution of aid due to political reasons. This article also illustrates how the fundamental concepts of “new humanitarianism” and “traditional humanitarianism” have been used in the methodology by aid organizations. This will pertain to my overall argument because it will address what weaknesses were apparent in the organizations that instituted “new humanitarianism” in their methodology.
 
7. Forsythe, David P. Human Rights in International Relations. Cambridge England: Cambridge UP, 2006.
 
        Forsythe argues that The Red Cross has impeccable record keeping. Few have been able to question the legitimacy of the records. People on the field can recall and transcribe events that took place in accurate detail. Advocacies of human rights standards want NGOs to adopt new standards or to enforce their existing standards. Human rights NGOs publish works and papers such that the NGOs that deal with future conflicts can be able to follow the strengths and avoid the weaknesses. Some NGOs provide direct services and protection to the populations that are affected by human rights violations.
The international system should deal with the problems of coordination to provide aid, politicize aid and create more effective legislation to fund aid organizations. It is fundamental to have lobbying groups that push the NGOs to change human rights standards. These NGOs are also essential to the distribution of aid.
 
I will use this textbook for definition purposes. I want to define the role of a non-governmental organization, such that the readers understand what I am trying to talk about. They I will give an objective outline of NGOs are in the international arena. This source will help clarify my overall argument.
 
8. Geneva Conventions of the United Nations General Assembly
 
U.N. General Assembly, 4th Sess. Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field. Aug. 12, 1949.
 
U.N. General Assembly, 4th Sess. Convention (II) for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea. Aug. 12, 1949.
 
U.N. General Assembly, 4th Sess. Convention (III) relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War. Aug. 12, 1949.
 
U.N. General Assembly, 4th Sess. Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. Aug. 12, 1949.
 
First Geneva Convention: states when there should be a need for humanitarian intervention. Explicitly states the ICRC as an agency to help during humanitarian crisis.
 
Second Geneva Convention: Talks about the rules of war and what factors should be considered when distributed humanitarian aid.
 
Third Geneva Convention: Explains how to treat POWs and other criminal activities that violate human rights.
 
Fourth Geneva Conventions: The transparency of international organizations has to be public. And it talks about situations of armed conflict.
 
I can use the Geneva Conventions be because they give explicit and texted guidelines on what factors should be considered when giving humanitarian aid. These factors are paralleled with the concepts of traditional humanitarian aid. These conventions are considered treaties that create a general practice in the international communities because it was signed by the most states. This Convention and the subsequent protocols can used to defend the fundamental objectives of traditional humanitarianism.
 
9. Cassese, Antonio. International Law. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2005.
 
        Cassese argues in his books now how customary law is practiced. Customary law is defined as the original source of customary law, with regard to the legal obligations based on long-standing state practice, oldest form of international rules and its binding nature on all states whether or not they played a part in its formation. Newly formed states are required to follow customary law as the price of admission into the international community of states. Cassese states that the elements of customary law are general practice, consistency over time, its acceptance as law (“opinion juris”).
 
He argues that the features of the international community are legal subjects are collective political communities rather than individuals, no central authority (anarchy), no global social contract (unwritten agreement) or single value system, wide variety of cultures, levels of development, and economic and military resources, and principle of sovereignty means that states are not beholden to any higher authority.
Using the technical terms of customary law and the international community I can argue that the Geneva Conventions can be considered customary law and have to be followed by all states. I will state why the Geneva Conventions can be considered customary law.
 
10. Pottier, Johan. “Relief and Repatriation: Views by Rwandan Refugees: Lessons for Humanitarian Aid Workers.” African Affairs 95.380 (1966): 403-29.
 
        Pottier argues that in order for humanitarian organizations to function to capacity and effectively they would have to learn to political dynamics of the areas that they are providing aid to then beginning to randomly distribute it. Humanitarian aid organizations just assumed that parts of the camps were not eligible for aid, for political purposes, thus resulting in thousands of deaths. The politics that were involved in the process showed that aid organizations were not aware of the non-genocide committers that were present in the camp, and thus chose to take a course of action that would inhibit the genocidaires but in the process results in the deaths of thousands of people. This problem can be addressed through the use of more detailed recording mechanisms and more transparency.
 
I can use this article to state why humanitarian aid should not be based on knowing the political factors involved. This argument can be strengthened by the accounts that are given in this article about the innocent people that have suffered from mis-distributed aid or not being provided aid due to a reluctance of the aid organizations to become involved in political conflicts.